History and government notes.
FORM THREE HISTORY & GOVERNMENT NOTES
Topic 1
EUROPEAN INVASION OF AFRICA AND THE PROCESS OF COLONISATION
For a long time, the Greeks, Romans, Portuguese, British, French and other Dutch came to the East African coast to trade. This led to the development of trade routes, trading centres which expanded up the African continent for exploration by David Livingstone, John Speke, Johann Rebmann, Morton Stanley and Mungo Park, and missionary work as a result of the age of religious revival in Europe from the 16th to 19th century. Missionary societies and groups that came included the London Missionary society, Universal Missions to Central Africa, the United Methodist Mission, White Fathers and the Holy Ghost Fathers.
The scramble for and partition of Africa
Between 1884 and 1914, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal continent threatened to destroy African political structures by invading and colonizing the continent.
Because of competition and scramble for Africa, Otto Von Bismark convened the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, where they divided Africa amongst themselves.
It is Liberia and Ethiopia that were not shared by 1914.
Scramble for Africa refers to a sudden struggle and confused rush of European powers to possess and control colonies in Africa.
Partition of Africa refers to sharing or dividing of regions of Africa among European countries during the Berlin conference.
Methods Used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa
Europeans signed treaties with local leaders and also among themselves. The treaties between Europeans and Africans include the ones between
These treaties favoured the Europeans as they were in their own language. At times Africans were forced to sign the treaties e.g. Karl Peters is reported to have used a gun to compel Mwanga to sign a treaty in 1890.
Military Conquest
Those communities that resisted the Europeans were conquered militarily e.g. the Asante, Ndebele and Mandinka. The British used force to suppress resistance of the Malawi, Shona and Ndebele.
The Portuguese too used force to establish their rule in Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique.
They would use combination of both treaties and force e.g. the British signed treaties with the Ndebele but fought them again during the Ndebele war of 1897 and the Chimurenga War of 1886 to 1897.
This refers to the divide and rule method. Explorers, missionaries and traders were used to lure the Africans with gifts, and then would conquer them.
The Italians signed a treaty of friendship with Menelik II but published an Italian version saying that Menelik had agreed that Ethiopia should become an Italian protectorate.
The British and Germans used chartered companies to rule their colonies i.e. they were used to govern colonies on behalf of the mother country e.g. Imperial British East Africa (IBEAC) ruled East Africa on behalf of Britain while Germany East Africa Company (GEAC) ruled Tanganyika under Karl Peters on behalf of the Germans.
Royal Niger Company of George Goldie and British South African Company (BSAC) under Cecil Rhodes ruled South Africa.
Company rule was used by the colonial powers because
Company rule was short-lived in that they were faced with many problems
Factors that led to the scramble for colonies in Africa
Economic reasons
After being kicked out of America in 1776, Britain lost her markets and cheap sources of raw materials. She then turned her attention to Africa as an alternative market for her goods
European countries needed cheap raw material such as palm oil, cotton, copper, gold, bronze, diamond and Iron ore for industries in Britain, Belgium, France, and Germany. Explorers had reported that Africa was rich in minerals, fertile soils etc.
Europe also needed cheap labour in the production of the raw material. They believed labour was readily available with the abolition of the slave trade in Africa.
The European traders needed fresh areas to invest excess capital; hence they believed that investment in Africa was more profitable than in Europe.
Political reasons
After the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 – 1871 where France lost her mineral rich province of Alsace and Lorraine, the Germans emerged as the most powerful nation than France under the rule of Otto Von Bismarck.
Embarrassed by the defeat, France had to fight for her lost glory. To compensate for the loss, she turned her attention to Africa acquiring colonies in West Africa.
The press also influenced the public opinion. Newspapers e.g. the Daily Mail of England, Kolonial Zeitang of Germany, Journal des Debats of France etc favoured the acquisition of colonies.
Strategic considerations
This referred to the ownership of the Suez Canal in Egypt. France had links with Egypt as early as 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte captured it from the Mamluks from Turkey with the aim of exploiting her wealth and to use it as a base to invade Britain. This made them construct the Suez Canal.
The canal was opened in 1869 after being constructed at a cost of 4 million by the British and the France.
The Suez Canal was a shorter route to British investments in India and the Far East colonies. It provided a source of revenue for Egypt. Khedive Ishmael got foreign loans from Britain to develop his country. However, he was extravagant e.g. he spent 1 million shillings on entertainment when opening the Suez Canal., making Egypt bankrupt. He then sold Egypt’s shares in the Canal to Britain, which then became the largest shareholder in the Anglo-Suez company.
To enable Khedive pay his debts, Britain and France set up a commission to regulate the finances of Egypt. This brought conflict between the King and his two commissioners whom he dismissed. In response, the European powers dethroned Khedive in 1879 using the Sultan of Turkey. His son Tawfiq was installed.
The European conquest of Egypt led to a rebellion led by Colonel Ahmed Urabi Pasha. This was crushed by the British forces at the battle of Tel el Kabir as France was busy in Tunisia.
In 1882 the British fully occupied Egypt to the dismay of the French, who in turn planned to occupy the territories south of Egypt so as to divert the waters of the Nile and make Egypt a desert.
The move worried the British since they all depended on the Nile for water. As a result in 1894, she claimed Uganda and Kenya as it was believed to be the source of Nile and a gateway Sudan. French occupied most of West African states in retaliation.
The French loss of Egypt made her intensify her activities in West Africa and the Congo. By 1882 she occupied Porto Novo. In response, Germany claimed Togo, Cameroon, Angola and Tanganyika.
By 1880 the French accepted the treaties signed with the Congolese chief Makoko under Savorgnan de Brazzar.
He was the ruler of Belgium, who wanted to establish a personal empire after realizing that powerful nations such as Britain got their wealth and prestige from their colonial territories.
In 1876, he called a meeting in Brussels which came to be known as the Brussels Geographical conference. Its members were from all over Europe. Its aims were
He then sent individuals like Henry Morton Stanley in Congo to explore. He later created the Congo Free State which became Leopold’s personal empire.
This move didn’t please the Portuguese who had already established colonies in the Congo. The result was Portugal, Belgium and France made claims for colonies in the region. These conflicts threatened to spark off wars among European nations in Africa. To avoid this, an international conference was convened at Berlin by Otto Von Bismarck.
Social Reasons
However they faced many problems from the locals e.g. resistance and they had to overcome this by asking their governments to protect them. This led to the colonial occupation of Lagos, Malawi and Uganda and hence the popular say that “the flag follows the cross”
Influential men also fanned imperialism e.g. British Writer W.T Stead encouraged the building o empires and overseas settlements.
Others included Karl Peters, Harry Johnstone, William Mackinon and David Livingstone.
In the 19th century the Europeans boasted of their superiority over other races. They argued that being fit and the strongest, they should rule the earth. They felt they had cultivated a better culture and had a duty to civilize the blacks in the Dark Continent. This led to paternalism i.e. a policy where governments control people by providing them with what they need, but giving them no responsibility or freedom of choice.
In the 19th century European population grew from about 190 million to 240 million. They needed new outlets to resettle the extra population. Britain e.g. had settled her people in Australia, New Zealand, U.S.A, Canada and South Africa have Germans, Portuguese and Dutch resettled their surplus population in Africa.
In the 19th Century, groups emerged in Europe referring to themselves as humanitarians, who campaigned against the slave trade. Such sentiments spread very fast as people embraced the ideals of liberty, equality, brotherhood after the French revolution.
Humanitarians like William Wilberforce, Granville Sharp are remembered for their role in the abolition of slave trade. They set up free homes in Liberia, Sierra Leon and Frere Town in E.A.
Vast resources such as minerals, ivory, game products, palm oil, copra, spices and kola nuts and good harbours enticed the foreigners.
In the interior the well developed trade and trade routes and centres and navigable rivers attracted the Europeans.
Decentralisation of the African communities and their frequent wars with their neighbours weakened them.
Devastation of African societies by diseases and natural calamities such as drought and famine made them easy to conquer.
The Process of Partition
Due to the Congo crisis i.e. desire for Britain, France and Portugal to occupy the Congo, the Europeans came up with a strategy to divide Africa among themselves peacefully.
Otto Von Bismarck convened a conference known as the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885.
The meeting was attended by parliamentarians from Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, U.S.A, Portugal and Italy.
Africans were not represented in the meeting, although this was their continent.
Objectives of the meeting
After much deliberation, king Leopold II of Belgium was given the Congo Free State, Germany, Togo, Cameroon and S.W Africa, Britain, the Niger.
It also abolished slave trade completely.
Terms of the Berlin Act
Impact of the Partition
It is the level of technology i.e. invention of steamship rail transport, discovery of quinine to cure malaria, military advancement i.e. manufacture of the sophisticated guns that speeded up the process of the scramble and partition of Africa.
African reaction to European Colonization
African communities reacted differently to European colonization. Their reaction to foreign invasion could be classified into
Some collaborated with the European for protection from their local enemies.
Resistance
The Maji Maji rebellion 1905-1907
The Berlin conference gave Tanganyika to the Germans following the signing of the treaties by Karl Peters with the chiefs of Usagara,Ungulu, Uzigua and Ukami.
However by 1888 the coastal Arabs led by Abushiri had began rebelling against the Germans.
Other rebellions broke out among the Chagga, Nyamwezi, Hehe etc.
The most remarkable rebellion was the Maji maji rebellion in Southern Tanganyika.
The word Maji maji is a Swahili word for water. This water which was drawn from River Rufiji was mixed with millet and maize flour and sprinkled on the warriors to make then immune to German bullets.
The communities that took part in the rebellion included the Zaramo, Bunga, Ngoni, Luguru, Wamwera and Ndendeule.
Causes of the Rebellion
Course of the War
This was a mass movement of the S. Tanganyika aimed at resisting colonial exploitation and safeguarding their independence. The people were mobilized by the religion to resist the Germans.
The rebelling Africans were well prepared by their leaders, Kinjekitile Ngwale, Abdalla Mpanda and Ngamea.
In 1904, Kinjekitile Ngwale of Ngarambe, a priest established himself near River Rufiji and claimed possession by a spirit called Hongo. He urged Africans to unite and gave them magic water that gave them immunity to the German bullets.
Through his ideas, Kinjekitile mobilized the Zaramo, Matumbi, Ngindo, Ngoni, Luguru, Ndendeule, Pogoro, Mpunga and Bena to rebel against the Germans. He appealed to the Africans by telling them that their ancestors would be resurrected.
The Matumbi were then fist to react. Workers boycotted cotton picking in their region by July 1905. The Pogoro followed they uprooted cotton from an Akidas farm at Nandete and attacked government posts and officials.
Kinjeketile ideas widely spread through a whispering campaign called Njwiywia which was a secret campaign from one person to another that a medicineman who could weaken the powers of the white man had risen from Ngarambe. Soon the Yao, Ngoni, Bena and Mpunga followed.
The fighter used the guerilla tactics. In 1905, the town of Samanga was burnt down, Europeans farms offices and missions were attacked and a number of Arabs Swahili and Africans working for the Germans were killed.
By August 1905, the Germans had begun killing African leaders. In 1907 Governor Graf Von Gotzen got reinforcement from Germany.
The Germans adopted a scorched earth policy in which they destroyed all the property. The defeated Africans lost hope as the magic water had failed to protect them from bullets. Most of them either surrendered or fled to Mozambique.
Why Africans were defeated
Note that the water acted as a mobilizer and a source of unity of people to make them rise against the Germans.
Results of the Rebellion
The Mandinka resistance
They were led by Samori Toure who was one of the most important empire builders during the period of the scramble and partition.
He was born in 1830 in Sanankore village East of Kankan.
He was a Dyula trader who traded in Gold, Kola nuts and slaves.
He was converted to Islam. His mother was captured by chief Sori Birama of Bisandugu as a slave.
He joined the chief’s army and served for seven years with the aim of rescuing his mother.
In 1858 he broke away from the army and formed his own with an aim of forming his empire.
By 1880 he used Islam, his ability in trade, military experience and diplomacy to carve out for himself an empire.
For 30 years he captured most of the area around Mandinka and by 1881 he had created the Mandinka Empire with his capital at Bisandugu.
Being a soldier, he created a powerful army which was divided into three wings. These include
He acquired guns from the profits made from the trade.
Causes of the Franco-Mandinka War 1891-1898
Samori Toure waged a seven year war against the French from 1891 to 1898. He led his army while the French were led by Major Archinard. As they fought, Samori Toure retreated eastwards creating his new second empire. He resisted the French for the following reasons.
Course of the war
In 1882 Toure who was expanding to the west came into conflict with the French who were expanding too the east. The west had the rich gold fields of Bure. The French demanded that Toure stops his expansion but he refused. This led to a war in 1885 in which Toure was defeated.
He then requested the British to support him by declaring his empire their protectorate. British refused.
In 1886, he signed the Bisandugu treaty with French whereby boundaries were recognized. Toure gave the French all the territories north of River Niger while he controlled Bure. In 1887 under the same amended treaty, Mandinka became a French protectorate.
Tour got in conflict with French over an area near the Kita-Bamako railway which Toure had claimed. Toure was defeated by French and the Bure gold mines were seized. He later on repossessed the mines.
In March 1886, he again signed the treaty of Bisandugu which brought peace between the two. In this treaty France was to be given the empire to the north of River Niger in return for friendship. To the French, the treaty meant full control over Mandinka.
On the other hand, Toure continued with his aggression towards Tieba of Sikasso, forcing the king of Sikasso to sign a treaty with the French for protection.
In 1890 the French sparked off a conflict between Tukolor and the Mandinka Empire. They also began to urge Tieba of Sikasso to attack Samori Toure. This led to the Franco-Mandinka war between the French and the Mandinka, in which Samori Toure fought alone after failing to get the support of the British and other African leaders.
In the same year, the French attacked and conquered Kankan, Bure and sent an expedition to burn Bisandugu.
In the first war, the French were defeated by Toure but in the second war the French conquered Bisandugu.
Toure staged a guerilla war against the French. He used the S. East forestland and attacked mostly at night. He had a large army of 35000 men armed with repeater rifles.
He avoided pitched battles and the massing of his troops in fortified cities. His army was divided in three such that one attacked, the other organized people for a retreat and the third group conquered new lands.
He also used the scotched earth policy i.e. burnt everything down so as to deprive the French of any food or shelter. By 1896, he had established a new empire 600 miles from the old empire with Dabakala as his new capital.
Toure sought assistance from the Asante and even the British but they declined. He fought and defeated the French in 1895 and the British in 1897.
However his new empire soon ran short of food, guns, horses and was being threatened by the British in Gold Coast.
The position of his new empire was not suitable for a number of reasons
Samore surrendered in 1898 and was deported to Gabon. He died in 1900 after failing to defend his empire against the French, but succeeded in waging a lot of war, guerrilla tactics scotch earth policy and the mass movement of population.
His resistance inspired many African leaders who earned him title ‘the Bonaparte of the Sudan’
Why the Resistance took so long to suppress
Why Toure was finally defeated
Toure resisted the French for 16 years and was conquered in 1898. The following are the reasons for his defeat
Results of Toures resistance
The Ndebele Resistance
The Ndebele were descendants of the Nguni speaking (Bantu) who fled from Zululand during the Mfecane wars in South Africa. The term Mfecane refers to wars sparked off by Shaka the Zulu while expanding his Zulu Kingdom.
The displaced communities sought refuge in other regions. The Ndebele then settled in Zimbabwe and ruled over local communities especially the Shona creating the Ndebele Kingdom in the 1830s.
They were fierce with well trained armies. When the missionaries came to Matabeleland, Mzilikazi welcomed them but it was not for long.
European invasion of the Ndebele
In 1859 the London Missionary society settled in Matabeleland led by Robert Moffat.
They assisted Mzilikazi by repairing his guns, inoculating his cattle, writing and interpretation of letters and providing medical care for the sick
Mzilikazi didn’t like the missionary influence in his Kingdom therefore started killing them.
Mzilikazi died in 1868 and his son Lobengula took over. He was threatened with Portuguese invasion from Bechuanaland and the Boers from Transvaal in South Africa.
Many Europeans streamed into Matabeleland with the aim of exploiting gold. Lobengula was a diplomat who did not get converted to Christianity for he realized that it would undermine his authority. He only signed treaties with the Boers whom he granted hunting rights.
He also knew the military might of the Europeans therefore he used diplomacy to deal with them to protect his people. He therefore played off the Boers against the British. At one time he sought British protection over his land to stop intrusion by the Boers, Portuguese and the Germans in Matabeleland.
In 1888 Lobengula signed the Moffat treaty with Rev Robert Junior Moffat in which Lobengula was not to sign any other treaty with other European groups without the permission of British.
In the same year, John Cecil Rhodes of the B.S.A Co sent Charles Rudd, Thomson and Maguire to sign a treaty i.e. the Rudd treaty.
In this Lobengula and the B.S.A Co of Cecil Rhodes granted the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland. To the king he knew it meant that the whites were only to take the minerals and leave the territory, while the Europeans interpreted it as the surrender of Matabeleland to them.
In exchange, Lobengula was to get a gunboat on river Zambezi and 500 sterling pounds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and 100,000 cartridges.
Lobengula noted later that the conditions he had spelt out to the Whites during the making of the treaty were not included in the final text; instead he had been tricked into surrendering his kingdom to the Europeans.
In retaliation in 1889 he sent a delegation of indunas (senior chiefs), Motshede and Bobiyance to London to meet Queen Victoria, who disregarded them. She gave a charter to the company at Cecil Rhodes request. This was followed with the coming of a pioneer group of 200 settlers from South Africa who settled at Mashonaland raising the union Jack (British Flag) in Salisbury. The move was welcomed by the missionaries who needed British support to enable them spread Christianity.
In 1891 the B.S.A Co was given the duty to administer the region. An administrator and a judge were sent to Mashonaland.
The Ndebele war of 1893
Causes
The British army led by Dr. Starr Jameson had 1200 soldiers from Mashonaland and South Africa. The Ndebele warriors were few, had been weakened by smallpox and had inferior weapons.
Lobengula realized that he could not confront the British. So he evacuated his people and sent messengers to Jameson to stop the war, but the messengers were killed.
In 1894 Lobengula died and the Ndebele were defeated. The indunas got demoralized and surrendered to Jameson. This led to the British imposition of company rule in Matabeleland. It was followed with the pushing of the Ndebele to the reserves of Gwaai and Shangani. They were subjected to forced labour, taxation and confiscation of their cattle.
Many Africans were killed while others died due to starvation. This later led to hostility between the Africans and the British leading to the Chimurenga war.
The Chimurenga war (1896-1897)
It was a war that was fought between the British and the combined Shona and Ndebele who had political, economic and religious grievances against the British.
Causes of the war
In 1896 Dr Leander Starr Jameson took most of the police to Transvaal in an attempt to take it over from the Boers. He was defeated. This absence of most of the police made Ndebele and Shona strike against the British easier.
The course of the war
In March 1896, the Ndebele high priest Umlugulu with senior indunas such as Sekombo, and Babiyance organized a ceremony to install Umfezela as Lubengulas successor. This plan failed as some policemen were murdered.
The Ndebele took the British by surprise by killing them on their farms, together with Africans policemen who worked on the Whitemans farms.
A total of 130 people were killed and by April the uprising had spread throughout the country forcing the European settlers to seek refuge in camps at Gwelo, Bulawayo, Belingwe and Mangwe. In Mashonaland the settler farms were raided and the whites took refuge in camps at Headlands, Salisbury and Marandelias
Religion played an important part in this rebellion. They stated that the drought, rinderpest and locust invasion were due to the presence of the white man. They claimed their god; the Mwari was urging them to force the white men out. They promised immunity from the British bullets.
However the two communities fought separately. Major Plumer brought reinforcement from Botswana which made the Ndebele agreed to peace talks. In the meeting the indunas presented their grievances and Rhodes agreed to their grievances. The Shona police were disbanded and the Ndebele headmen given powers.
However African priest were severely punished e.g. Singinyamatshe was sentenced to 12 years in prison with hard labour.
As the Ndebele war ended in December 1896, the Shona uprising was at its peak. The British were able to crush the Shona resistance in October 1897 since Ndebele support was not there. Then, colonial rule was imposed on them.
Why the Ndebele and Shona were defeated
The results of the war
Collaboration
Some African communities resorted to collaboration due to the following reasons
Communities that collaborated included the Buganda of Uganda and Lozi of Zambia.
Other communities adopted both collaboration and resistance.
The Lozi Collaboration
They are also referred to as the Luyi. It was founded in the Zambezi valley and was situated in the present day Zambia.
Their rulers were known as Litunga and they claimed direct descent from god.
Between 1830 and 1864 they were conquered by the Kololo who were fleeing from Shaka’s mfecane. Their rule ended in 1864 and Lewanika led the Lozi in re-establishing the Bulozi kingdom.
Lewanika did not resist the colonialists. He signed several agreements with British hoping to retain his position as king and preserve the independence of his kingdom.
Why he collaborated
How he collaborated
Lewanika was tricked into signing treaties with the British South Africa Company representatives whom he believed stood for the British government.
In 1889 Lewanika asked for the British protection. It was followed with the coming of Harry Ware, a British citizen who sought mining rights in Bulozi. He then signed a treaty with Ware granting him rights to mine for 20years.
Ware later sold his concessions to two other prospectors named King and Nind who in turn sold it to Cecil Rhodes at 9000 sterling pounds on behalf of B.S.A Co.
Rhodes then sent Lochner to persuade Lewanika sign a treaty with the British.
The Lochner Treaty 1890
Frank Lochner met Lewanika with the help of a missionary Francois Coillard who had been allowed by the King to set up missions in the territory.
Terms of the Treaty
Later Lewanika realized that he had lost his kingdom to the British. He then requested that it be nullified, but he was ignored.
In 1897 the company sent a former police officer major Robert Coryndon as British resident in Bulozi, who made arrangements for the signing of another treaty.
The Coryndon Treaty of 1900
This treaty dealt the Bulozi kingdom a death blow in that
The Baganda Collaboration
It was a highly centralized society with powerful kings. The kings expanded the territory through warfare against their neighbours.
They conquered the mineral rich areas such as Buddu, an iron ore area and Kyaggwe, a source of ivory.
As a kingdom, it grew due to its good policies and economic stability. They also traded with the Sudan, Ethiopia and the Swahili Arabs from the East African coast.
It became the most powerful state in the 19th century. However the following kings collaborated with the Europeans.
Kabaka Mutesa 1 1856-1884
The search for the source of river Nile led Europeans to Uganda. John Speke and James Grant came in 1862 when Mutesa I was in power. Because of his friendliness, Henry Morton Stanley visited in 1871 and convinced Mutesa to accept missionaries in Uganda. He accepted because
Mutesa died in 1884 and his son Mwanga took over the leadership of the kingdom.
Kabaka Mwanga (1884-1889)
He came to power in 1884. He failed to know which religious group to support. The Muslims convinced him that the Europeans would undermine him and take over Buganda. He reacted to this by persecuting Christians. In 1885 he ordered the persecution of three young missionary society (C.M.S) converts. In October Bishop Hannington was killed.
In May 1886 thirty young converts were burnt to death at Namugongo for refusing to denounce their Christian faith. This led to a period of political instability in Buganda.
In 1888, the traditionalists urged Mwanga to expel all the foreigners whom they blamed for causing chaos in the kingdom. This made the Protestants and the Muslims to overthrow Mwanga. He was replaced by his brother Kiwewa who was later deposed by Muslims for refusing to be circumcised. Kalema, his brother took over as a ruler. This move annoyed the Europeans for it reflected the Muslim dislike for Christianity.
In 1890 Christians and Bunyoro under Kabarega helped Mwanga recapture his position.
In 1890 the Anglo-German agreement was signed between the Germans and British. It declared Uganda a British sphere of influence. An IBEAC official, Captain Fredrick Lugard who was an ex-India officer came to Uganda as the first British administrator.
Mwanga signed a treaty with Lugard for protection giving IBEAC control over Buganda.
Why Mwanga Collaborated
In Uganda, company rule was shattered as IBEAC became bankrupt. In 1892, there was a conflict between Catholics and Protestants. In the dispute, Lugard supported the protestant and ordered Kabaka Mwanga to execute the Catholics, but Kabaka refused. In reaction to refusal, Lugard armed the Protestants who then attacked and destroyed a catholic mission. This led to the 1892 Anglo-Franco war in which the Protestants (British) fought the (French) Catholics.
However, the Catholics hit back and almost overpowered Protestants. The Protestants got reinforcements from the Sudanese soldiers thereby defeating the Catholics. The king’s palace was captured. Mwanga and the catholic leaders fled to an Island in Lake Victoria.
Later the Catholics helped Mwanga recapture his throne.
In 1894, Uganda was declared a British protectorate. Mwanga realized that under the British rule, he was just but a puppet for all the power was in the hands of the British administration.
He was captured and exiled in Kismayu in Somalia in 1899 and later Seychelles where he died in 1903.
He was succeeded by his infant son, Daudi Chwa who was assisted by three ministers, Apollo Kagwa, the Katikiro (prime-minister), the chief justice Stanislaus Mugwanya and the treasurer Edward Kisingiri.
This was followed with the signing of the Buganda agreement of 1900, which aimed at ensuring that Buganda remained self sufficient to enable her meet her cost of administration.
The Buganda Agreement of 1900
The provisions of the agreement revolved around land, taxation, government and boundaries.
By the agreement, chiefs were given new powers. The powers of the Kabaka and clan heads on issues of government and land were reduced. The Kabaka had to be consulted before any new taxes could be imposed on Baganda.
Later the British used Buganda Christians to extend their indirect rule over other regions e.g. Semei Kakanguru, a Muganda was used by the British to conquer Bagisu, Kumam, Teso, Busoga and Kigezi.
Apollo Kagwa, and the Katikiro also assisted the British in implementing their policy of indirect rule e.g. with his help, the British were able to crush the Sudanese mutiny in 1898.
Moreso, he encouraged the Buganda to accept modern farming practices and western education.
He also embarked on judicial, financial and administration reforms in Buganda.
Results of African Collaboration
Positive effects of European colonization of Africa
Topic 2
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA
Causes of the scramble for East Africa
Germany and British interests in East Africa brought the two powers to near war despite the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. Zanzibar became the operational base for these rival powers as they began to focus on the interior of East Africa.
This led to the arrival of the Germany East Africa Company under Karl Peters and the IBEA Co under Mackinnon intensified rivalry for colonization of East Africa.
The process of Partition
Though the Berlin conference laid down the framework for the partition of Africa, it did not fully resolve the rivalry between the Germans and the British in East Africa.
In 1884 Harry Johnstone signed a treaty with the Chagga Chief Mandara in which he declared Chaggaland a British sphere of influence. This made Karl Peters to move fast to prevent the British from pushing the Germans out of Tanganyika, who immediately declared Usagara Ungulu, Uzigua and Ukami as German protectorates. Such activities almost led to war. This led to the Anglo-Germany agreement of 1886. The agreement facilitated the peaceful settlement of claims on East Africa between Germany and Britain. By this agreement
The agreement did not fully resolve the dispute between the two powers leading to the signing of another treaty in 1890 known as the Heligoland Treaty.
The Heligoland Treaty
This was signed to ease the tension between the two powers over Uganda, and it ended partition of East Africa.
Through the agreement
The British government was not originally interested in Kenya. However it only provided a passage way to Uganda and harbor facilities. It later became a British protectorate in 1895.
Methods used to occupy Kenya
A treaty was signed between William Mackinnon and Sultan Bargash of Zanzibar in 1887.
Other treaties were signed by agents of prominent chiefs. However many of these rulers did not understand the terms and the full implication of such agreements, e.g. the Maasai agreements of 1904 to 1911 between Oloibon Lenana and the British.
Other treaties were signed between the Germans and the Africans e.g. the Anglo-Germany treaties of 1886-1890.
Although the local leaders were allowed to retain their position and power, they operated under harsh conditions.
The Wanga under Nabongo Mumia and the Maasai under Oloibon Lenana willingly agreed to co-operate with the British and they were compromised with goods and political benefits.
The British used force to those communities that did not embrace the colonial rule. Punitive expeditions were dispatched against the Bukusu, Nandi, Abagusi, Luo and Akamba who rebelled.
They built forts to enhance political control e.g. Fort Hall Murang’a and Fort Smith Kabete, Some of the forts and commercial centres later emerged as administrative centres.
Company rule
The colonialists used trading companies to administer protectorates on their behalf due to the high cost that was involved to ensure effective administration.
The companies therefore did the following
Kenya was ruled by the IBEAC under William Mackinnon which had the following powers.
This company managed to do the following
However the company failed to administer Kenya due to the following reasons
This made the company to hand over Kenya to the British government in 1886, and it was given 250,000 dollars as compensation for its services. Kenya was declared a British protectorate in 1895.
Kenyan peoples response to British invasion
In Kenya, some communities resisted the rule of the British; others collaborated while others displayed both.
Active resistance
The Nandi, Agiriama. Bukusu, Somali and sections of the Kikuyu used armed resistance to protect their independence. Military expeditions were sent against the resisting communities and this intensified the struggle.
The Nandi resistance
They resisted the rule of the British for 11 years. This was due to the successes they had in their political social and economic structures.
The decline of the Maasai power due to the succession disputes and natural calamities led to their rise. This gave them a sense of superiority and any stranger passing through their land had to seek permission or else face their wrath.
The warrior based age-set system provided the community with a strong defence. The youth got trained through the age-set on how to defend their community. This enabled them to always have a standing army which made them a powerful community. This was why they resisted the British for ten years.
However the British were determined to suppress them at whatever cost, exploit the highlands and access to Uganda using the Uganda railway.
The Nandi practiced mixed farming as their land was fertile. This meant that they had a strong economic base. They also had the institution of the orkoiyot (prophet) which united the Nandi and gave them a strong sense of unity.
Causes of the rebellion
The course of the rebellion
The Nandi staged guerrilla warfare. They frequently attacked the caravan traders and mail carriers who passed through their territory. These attacks provoked the British who accused the Nandi of interfering with the trade and communication.
In 1895 Andrew Dick murdered two warriors who strayed into his camp at Guasa Mesa. In reaction, the Nandi killed Peter West, a trader and his team. The British then sent punitive expedition in 1897 which failed to stop the raids.
In 1899 the Nandi refused to cooperate with the railway builders. They refused to give them water and food and instead kept on stealing their building materials such as rails and telegraph wires to make weapons and ornaments. They also ambushed and murdered railway builders.
This made the British to send punitive expeditions against them in 1900 under colonel Evatt. The Britons got reinforcement from Maasai, Buganda, Swahili and Indian soldiers.
The Nandi got support from the Kipsigis. Many people died hence the British and Nandi decided to settle for peace instead.
Between 1901-1905, Walter Mayes conducted a campaign meant to pacify the Nandi and in 1901 their warriors attacked the railway in protest against the settlers who were farming on their land. British reacted by destroying crops, villages and stealing cattle. These wars went on for 3 years.
The Nandi requested Koitalel to work out ways of coordinating the resistance. However captain Meinertzhagen believed that if Koitalel was murdered the warriors would be cowed. In October 1905 he invited him and his advisers who were killed on the pretext that they were planning to attack the government.
In October 1905 a military team comprising 1500 fighters of Indian, Swahili, Maasai and Somali were sent to attack the Nandi. They in turn put up a strong show and in December 1905 a truce was called by Hayes Sadler the British commissioner making the end of the 11 year rebellion.
Why the Nandi resisted the British for so long (protracted/prolonged)
Why they were defeated
Results of the rebellion
The Agiriama Resistance
These are a Bantu speaking group along the coast. Their reaction to colonial rule was provoked by the Mazrui Arabs and the Swahili in 1895. They were also reacting to the manner in which the IBEA Co was conducting the business along the coast.
MacDougal, the company official at Malindi, appointed Rashid Bin Salim instead of Mbaruk bin Rashid as the legitimate heir to the Takaungu sheikhdom.
Rashid was in conflict with the Busaidi al Basaidi Sultanate for collaborating with the company after the death of the Mazrui. Mbaruk should have immediately ascended to the throne.
However having had a long standing trading links with the Mazrui Arabs, the Mijikemda community was willing to offer them support.
The Omani Al Busaidi Arabs were also encroaching on Mijikenda territory.
To silence the two groups, the British brought in regiments from India and they bombarded Rashids headquarters at Mweli. This made the Mazrui and Agiriama resort to guerilla warfare. The Mazrui surrendered but the Agiriama continued until 1914.
Causes of the resistance
The course of the resistance
They began by refusing to be recruited for K.A.R in 1914. They barred the young men from moving outside their villages in order to provoke the British.
They forced some to migrate to marginal areas like Taru desert to escape the tax payment.
The Agiriama were inspired by a prophetess known as Mekatilili Wa Menza who led the Agiriama in a mass resistance against the rule of the British.
She opposed forced labour, military conscription and the collection of taxes. She was later joined by an elder Wanje wa Madorika in mobilizing the people. They called on their people to return to their ancestral shrine at Kaya Fungo and offer sacrifices.
They denounced all appointed puppet rulers and called for their support for the Agiriama council of elders.
To unite themselves, they administered traditional oaths where the woman took Mukushekushe and the men took the Fisi oaths. The oaths inspired the warriors to wage a serious war.
A state of emergency was declared on the Agiriama and they adapted a hit and run warfare where they attacked the villages of converts and homes of loyal chiefs, headmen, Europeans and collaborators.
The missionaries sought refuge in neighbouring stations at Rabai. In retaliation the British burnt villages and crops and drove away livestock.
Mekatilili and Wanje were arrested and deported to Kisii. It was easy for the British to suppress the Agiriama since they were staying in the Kayas, which they bombarded.
The Arabs led by Fadhili bin Omari mediated between the Agiriama and the British marking the end of the war. This was on condition that
Role of Mekatilili in the resistance
Effects of the resistance
The Bukusu resistance 1895
They offered one of the earliest and more fierce forms of resistance to the British authority in West Kenya before they were finally occupied.
Causes of resistance
Course of the resistance
The commanding officer at Kavirondo had sent a trade caravan to the Ravine station. They were ambushed by the Bukusu who stole all the rifles.
The Bukusu were ordered to return the arms unconditionally by the British and they refused. The British then sent a punitive expedition which was defeated by the Bukusu.
The news of the defeat reached Charles Hobley at Elureko who appealed for help from the Uganda protectorate. In retaliation Major William Grant dispatched a contingent of Sudanese and Buganda soldiers.
In 1895 two major battles were fought at Chetambes on the Webuye hill. In this the Bukusu were defeated due to poor military provisions.
Effect of the resistance
The Somali resistance
Right from the beginning of the process of European invasion in East Africa, the British were not interested in the occupation of Somaliland. But later they decided to occupy Jubaland province as a British protectorate.
However the Somali led by Ahmed bin Murgan reacted harshly to these developments.
Causes of the resistance
Course of the resistance
The Somali began by raiding Kismayu in 1898 which was a British sphere of influence. This was in response to the injuries inflicted on them by the expedition.
However the British initially didn’t respond due to the following reasons:
However in 1900 the Somali murdered a British sub-commissioner for Jubaland Mr. Jenner. The British sent a punitive expedition of Indian regiment against them. The Somali were defeated.
In 1905 the Somali rose up against the British and continued resistance since they had acquired arms. This ended in 1914 when boundaries were changed. By 1925, parts of the British Somaliland were put under Italian Somaliland marking the end of the conflict.
Consequences of the resistance
Collaboration
Several Kenya communities collaborated with the British due to the following reasons
Among the people who welcomed the invaders were the Maasai, Wanga, Akamba and the Luo.
The Maasai collaboration
The Maasai are a Nilotic speaking people who inhabit the plains of the rift Valley. Basically they are cattle keepers though the kwavi are mixed farmers.
For a long time, the Maasai were really feared by European explorers and foreigners. But in the 19th century this trend changed due to the death of Mbatian, the spiritual and religious leader of the Purko Maasai. His two sons Lenana and Sendeyo vied for oloibornship. This led to many problems in the community.
By 1878 the Purko Maasai had split into two, Sendeyo moved with his followers to Loita hills in Tanzania while Lenana remained with another group in the Ngong Naivahsa region.
The rivalry weakened Lenana Maasai who looked for an ally to rescue them from this state of affairs. However his decision to collaborate surprised many, given that the community had a fierce reputation.
Reasons for collaboration
How they collaborated
The Maasai warriors were recruited as mercenaries against communities such as the Nandi and Luo of Ugenya and they were in return rewarded with confiscated cattle.
The drought and famine had sent some women and children to the British and Agikuyu centres for food.
The Maasai warriors had at one time attacked a caravan that composed the Gikuyu and Somali on their way from Eldama Ravin across the Kedong valley. The attack left some of the caravan traders dead. Andrew Dick a Scottish trader with his two French friends opened fire killing 100 Maasai. This really scared them and they had to seek for peace.
The turn of events benefited Lenana who was immediately crowned the paramount chief of the Maasai. It was followed with the signing of the two treaties in maasailand, i.e. 1904 and 1911, which concluded the process of collaboration.
The 1904 treaty
Consequences of the collaboration
The Wanga Collaboration
They are a section of the Luyia of Western Kenya. Their leader Nabongo Mumia was ambitious and shrewd. He decided to collaborate with the British with the aim of expanding his kingdom.
Initially he associated with the Arabs and Swahili traders who gave him firearms. On the arrival of the British he saw it as an opportunity to get arms.
Reasons for the Wanga collaboration
Process of Collaboration
Mumia began by befriending the caravan traders who later teamed up with the IBEA Co merchants.
The company officials liked the hospitality and therefore built a fort and a trading station at his capital in Mumias. This was the start of better things. Mumias therefore remained the capital of western province until 1920 when it was moved to Kakamega.
Results of the Collaboration
Though Mumia’s desire were fulfilled at the time of the arrival of the British, the freedom was short lived as the British took over direct administration and retired Nabongo Mumia from active public life. This was a sign of betrayal.
Mixed reactions
This refers to communities that neither received nor collaborated i.e. some sections of their people cooperated while others fought back. This included the following.
The Akamba reaction
They occupy the eastern province. They rose to prominence in the 19th century due to their participation in the long distance trade.
The arrival of the IBEA Co made the British stop the Akamba from taking part in the trade and also raiding their neighbours.
The company agents stole Akamba property and raped women. This made the Akamba to rebel.
This conflict was intensified with the building of a Fort at Masaku from where the British sent several military expeditions against the Akamba. Several sections of the Akamba resisted while others collaborated.
Reasons for their resistance
Organization of the resistance
In 1890 the Akamba led by Nzibu Mweu boycotted and refused to sell goods to company agents. In the same year Syonguu ordered the warriors of lveti to attack Masaku fort due to the sacrilege committed by cutting down the Ithembo tree for a flag pole. This led to the defeat of the British who reacted swiftly by burning and looting the Akamba villages.
In 1894, Mwatu Wa Ngoma ordered the Akamba to attack the British for stopping them from raiding their neighbours. He blessed them with some medicine which gave them the strength.
This time they were seriously defeated by the British hence they began collaborating with the British by giving them the support and in return they were given cattle and grains confiscated from the Agikuyu and the Maasai.
Later Mwanamuka from Kangundo incited the people against the colonial police. They attacked the British boma (Sheds) at Mukuyuni and Mwala and killed all. They also turned against Mwatu wa Ngoma who had become a collaborator.
In retaliation, the British sent an expedition to silence the Akamba using the Maasai mercenaries who took their livestock.
Mwanamuka decided to blockade the Lukenya area cutting off the British communication between Fort Smith and Machakos. In retaliation, another military expedition which comprised of the Kikuyu and Maasai warriors was sent against the Akamba. The result was many Kambas were devastated forcing Mwanamuka to petition for peace.
Reasons for collaboration
Why they were defeated
Results of the reactions
The Agikuyu reaction
Like the Akamba, they were highly divided due to their decentralized political system.
Reasons for mixed reactions
Organisation of the reaction
In 1890 Captain Lugard put up a Fort at Dagoretti so as to get food for his people after entering into an agreement with Waiyaki wa Hinga.
He left for Uganda and Captain Wilson who could not control the soldiers at Dagoretti, was left in charge. In return the caravan traders began stealing food and livestock from the Agikuyu, who reacted by setting Dagoretti Fort on fire.
John Ainsworth, the sub-commissioner, sent a punitive expedition against Waiyaki who was arrested and died on his way to Mombasa.
It is believed that the chief was buried alive at Kibwezi by his captors.
In 1899 Fort Smith was closed down and another fort was opened in the interior by Francis Hall. All the land belonging to Waiyaki was given to the white settlers and missionaries and Kinyanjui wa Gathimu replaced Waiyaki wa Hinga as chief.
Fort Hall (Murang’a) became a British Fort. John Boyes helped conquer the Kikuyu of Fort Hall and those of Nyeri. He forged an alliance with Karuri wa Gakure leader of Fort Hall who linked Boyes to Wang’ombe Wa Gaki, who supported Boyes with soldiers and he benefited from the loot confiscated from resisting groups.
Francis Hall was succeeded by captain Meinertzhagen who pacified all the rebellions among the Gikuyu. He supported the Muruka, and the Agikuyu of Tetu.
The Gikuyu of Tetu led by chief Gakere had wiped an entire Asian caravan on the slope of the Aberdares. Finally he was murdered and his associates were deported to the coast.
In 1904 the Gikuyu of Iriaini were defeated, many of their warriors were killed and 10000 head of cattle were captured by the British.
The Aembu succumbed to the British after they had seen the suffering met by the Gikuyu.
By 1910 the whole of Mt Kenya region had been put under British rule. They all settled down in their reserves up to the 1920s when they began to fight for independence.
Results of the mixed reaction
The Luo reaction
The main sections of the Luo who resisted were the Luo of Sakwa, Seme, Ugenya and Kisumu. Those of Gem and Asembo are among those who collaborated.
Reasons for resistance
Reasons for collaboration
The Course of the Resistance
They began by attacking the Wanga, their traditional enemies to expand their territory. They also accommodated those who ran away from the Wanga and the British due to mistreatment.
They destroyed the British telegraph wires and attacked German and British stations.
The Luo of Seme were angered by the British practice of attacking them for cattle and grains, hence they attacked the Luo of Asembo for their collaboration.
In 1898 the British invaded the Luo of Seme. It was followed with their defeat and loss of lives. In the same year, the Luo of Kisumu on Winam Gulf attacked a British Canoe party which usually took fish without paying. However they were also defeated.
The Luo of Gen followed led by Odera Akang’o and those from Asembo supported the British and they helped the British to establish their authority not only in West Kenya but also to suppress the Nandi and Luo of Seme, Sakwa, Ugenya and Uyoma.
Consequences of the Luo reaction
African communities who offered mixed reactions realized their foolishness. They noted that they had the prime objective of safeguarding their culture, freedom and prestige whatever way they reacted. Unfortunately, the British were determined to establish their authority regardless of their reaction.
By the beginning of the 20th century, many communities had been suppressed and colonial rule was effectively established.
Topic 3
COLONIAL SYSTEMS OF ADMINISTRATION
Having brought down all forms of resistance among the African communities, the British established a system of administration that would enhance their rule. They then set up the central and local government systems.
Central government
Hierarchy of Colonial administration in Kenya
He was the political head of the British administration. He co-coordinated colonial policies discussed by the cabinet and British parliament. He was based in London.
The protectorate was divided into provinces headed by P.Cs who were the representatives of the Governor.
Represented the British government in the colony and was answerable to the colonial secretary. He was the head of the executive council which effected colonial policies and programmes
He gave ascent to laws before they were implemented.
Represented the governor at the provincial level
He implemented the policies and laws made by the government.
He supervised the work of the D.Os, Chiefs, D.Cs and headmen on behalf of the Governor.
He implemented policies in their districts.
Maintained law and order
He presided over District advisory committee.
Co-ordinated the work of the D.Os, and Chiefs
They took orders from the D.Cs
They coordinated the work of the D.Os and Chiefs.
They maintained law and order in their divisions.
Acted as link between the people and the governor.
Maintained law and order at the locations and also collected taxes.
Coordinated the work of the headmen.
They linked the government and the people at the grassroot level.
Mobilized the people for development in their villages and collected taxes.
The administrative hierarchy ensured that orders were issued from the highest level of administration to the lowest. The Chiefs and headmen were given the powers by the headmen ordinance and the chief’s authority Act.
The headmen and chiefs restricted in the African reserves.
The management of the central government was coordinated by the Advisory Council and the Executive Council which guided the governor and effected colonial policies.
The Local Government
It aimed at ensuring that the locals are also involved in the running of the government. However, only the Europeans were represented in it.
This idea of having a local government originated from the desire by the Europeans settlers to safeguard a number of privileges for themselves. They then created the District Advisory Councils where members were nominated by the central government, to be a link between the local government and the central government. This ensured that European interests such as roads, electricity and schools in the colony were to be given priority.
The role of the Local Government
The Local Native Councils
They were set up in the colony in 1922 after the Legco passed the Native Authority Ordinance to create a forum through which African grievances could be addressed by the colonial government.
Objectives of LNCs
The L.N.Cs achieved the following
In 1948 the L.N.C were renamed the African District Councils. Pascal Nabwane became their first African Chairman. This remained the local authority organ in African states until 1963.
The European areas such as Nakuru, Uasin Gishu, Nairobi, Naivasha, Trans Nzoia and Aberdares remained with the Local government. It had more powers and independence. Africans found in these areas were regarded as migrant labourers who were represented in their reserves.
To maintain law and order, the police and the Kings African Rifles were used. An inspector was appointed from India to co-ordinate all this. The police reserve, regular police and the prisons services were created to maintain discipline, order and good governance.
Impact of the local government
Factors that undermined the local Government
By 1890 the process for the scramble and partition of Africa was complete.
To facilitate maximum exploitation of the human and natural resources a relevant colonial system of administration was to be put in place. The following systems were used:
Indirect Rule
This policy was advanced by Sir Frederick Lugard, the British High Commissioner in northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906.
Lugard summed up the ideas of the indirect system of government in his book ‘The Dual Mandate in Tropical Africa’ in which he stated ‘the resident acts as a sympathetic adviser to the native chief, being careful not to interfere so as not to lower his prestige or loose interest in his work. His advise on matters in general policy must be followed, but the native ruler issues instructions to his subordinate chief and district heads not as the elders of the resident but his own’
This indirect system was applied using traditional African rulers, who administered at the local government level while the Europeans occupied the senior positions in the colonies.
There were two factors that influenced this policy
Under the indirect rule, each colony was divided into regions or provinces under P.Cs and each province into districts. The day to day affairs and the local ordinances were left in the hands of the traditional chiefs.
To Lugard, indirect rule was not just a system of giving power to African; he also argued that traditional chiefs needed to be modernized so that the British could use them to introduce modern practices of governance to Africans. This had to be done gradually so as not to disrupt African political structures.
The African practices that were primitive e.g. human sacrifice, slave trade and witchcraft, murder of twins and mutilation of limbs had to be eliminated.
Reasons for Indirect rule
Effects of indirect rule in Kenya
The British in Kenya
By 1905, Kenya had become a British protectorate, and the colonial base was shifted from Zanzibar to Nairobi.
By 1914 the British faced the problem of
This made the British to operate according to the administrative systems of the different regions of the country therefore applying indirect rule.
The communities that had chiefs e.g. the Wanga and the Maasai had their chiefs recognised by the British.
The British appointed chiefs even over communities where the institution of the chief did not exist e.g. among the Gikuyu. Kinyanjui wa Gathimu was appointed in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Murang’a and Wang’ombe wa Ihura in Nyeri.
They were appointed because
In 1902 the Village Headmen Act was enacted and it gave chiefs powers to hear cases, maintain public order and clear roads and footpaths. They would be fined if they failed to perform their duties.
In 1912 another ordinance was passed which increased their powers and responsibilities of the chiefs e.g.
The chiefs played an important role since the British personnel were few, young and inexperienced.
However many of the selected chiefs were rejected by the Africa elders and also by the young generation who saw them as instruments of colonial exploitation and oppression.
They were unpopular due to the fact that they used their power to acquire riches which were in terms of land, livestock and wives e.g. Musau wa Mwanza and Nthiwa wa Tama of Kambaland.
Why British used direct rule in Kenya
The British in Nigeria
The Nigerian protectorate composed of the regions which were administered separately. These were the Lagos colony, the Southern Nigeria protectorate and the Northern Nigeria protectorate.
It was therefore necessary to bring the three separate entities together under one administration. This led to the integration of Lagos into Southern Nigeria in 1906 and in 1914 the Northern and Southern protectorate were merged to form one Nigeria protectorate.
Lugard by then was the British Commissioner of Northern Nigeria in 1900 and by then he was experienced in administration after having employed indirect rule in Uganda.
The following factors motivated him to introduce indirect rule in Nigeria:
Administration of Northern Nigeria
Lugard used the centralized government of the Emirs to administer the region. When the Emirs realized that the British didn’t want to displace them they cooperated.
Nigeria was divided into provinces led by a resident P.C. Below was a D.O and both were Britons.
The Emirs under the D.Os had much power and responsibility to impose and collect taxes as they did before the coming of the British.
In 1904 Lugard ordered that the chiefs pay a quarter of the revenue collected from taxation to the central government and use the remainder for their own needs within the emirates. This included
Emirates were further allowed
The British improved transport network in Nigeria for the following reasons:
In 1915 Northern and southern Nigeria were brought under one system of administration inspired by the success of indirect rule in Northern Nigeria. Lugard tried to impose the indirect system on southern Nigeria. It failed due to the following
Effects of indirect rule
Merits
Demerits of indirect rule
Direct rule
This refers to a system of administration where indigenous political and administrative institution and leaders are replaced with an European system.
In this system the European officers ruled directly without any intermediaries.
The system was used in colonies with large population of white settlers such as Algeria and Southern Rhodesia.
The British in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe, formerly known as southern Rhodesia, was colonized by the British South Africa Company of John Cecil Rhodes.
Rhodes used his large sums of money to equip a group of South African Europeans who established themselves in the Shona territories from 1890.
More so, it is from Cecil Rhodes that Zimbabwe and Zambia got their colonial name Rhodesia.
The conquest of South Rhodesia was an extension of the South Africa system of white settler domination. From 1893 the white settlers fought the Ndebele a series of wars aimed at getting their land. Owing to their superior arms they defeated them and occupied their fertile land in Mashonaland and Matabeleland.
Under the B.S.A.C the British settlers entrenched themselves economically and politically in Southern Rhodesia.
Characteristics of Direct Rule in Zimbabwe
This was the best example of a colony where direct rule was practiced in Africa.
Reasons for direct rule in Zimbabwe
The B.S.A.C administration structure in southern Rhodesia
The company administered the colony from the 1890s when the territory was conquered.
The government was headed by a resident commissioner who had various commissioners in charge of the districts. Below them were the African chiefs whose role was
In 1898 the British government set up a legislative council (legco) which was dominated by the European settlers e.g. five were elected while four were nominees. They then created an executive council that consisted of the Resident commissioners and four nominees.
In 1902 a native Affairs department was created and was headed by an European native commissioner.
His work was
This was the beginning of direct rule in Southern Rhodesia. In this, the African communities were not represented in the Legco and the policies passed were usually discriminative.
In the 1890s, more settlers began to come to Southern Rhodesia. They expected to find a lot of valuable mineral deposits which, was not the case. They retaliated by acquiring more land from African communities.
By 1901 they were 11,000 European settlers in the colony and by 1931 it had gone to 50,000.This population of settlers had a direct impact on the constitutional and administrative development in Southern Rhodesia e.g. the pioneer settlers were given grants of upto 3,000 acre pieces of land.
The B.S.A.C set up separate reserves for Africans in Mashonaland and Matabeleland. By 1915 African reserve covered an area of 24 million acres while European owned 21 million acres leaving 50 million acres unallocated.
Due to the mass powers that the settlers had acquired in the colony, by 1920 they had began considering themselves as real owners of Southern Rhodesia.
The B.S.A.Co officials outnumbered the Europeans settlers hence the company decided to give out its control over to the colony so that Southern Rhodesia could either become a crown colony or be merged with South Africa.
Crown colony rule 1903-1953
Crown land is land owned by the state headed by the Queen. When a vote was taken among the settlers to decide whether to merge with South Africa or to develop separately, many of the settlers opted for separate development due to the following
In 1925 Southern Rhodesia became a crown colony and a new constitution was drawn.
A governor was appointed to represent the queen of England and the settlers were given the freedom in running the colony.
In 1923 the white settlers in Southern Rhodesia formulated a new policy ‘the two pyramids policy’ or ‘the parallel development policy’ to run the colony. This was a racist policy similar to the apartheid policy co-opted by the South Africa regime, and it was dominated by discrimination against the Africans.
Under the policy the minority whites occupied the upper ranks of the pyramid while the majority Africans formed the base i.e. meaning that the whites took higher positions in the economic and political systems while Africans were given the position of cheap labourers for white settlers.
This policy was supported by two main pillars:
The land apportionment Act of 1930
In 1925, the government established a commission to make recommendations on the future of 50 million acres of unallocated land in the colony. The finding of the commission led to the Land Apportionment Act of 1930 which became the greatest charter of Southern Rhodesia.
The Act introduced rigid territorial segregation e.g. it divided land into whites and Africans portion, i.e. Africans cold not acquire land outside their set up areas.
The minority whites acquired half of the best of the fertile land while Africans were settled in the harsh semi arid areas infested with tsetseflies and mosquitoes.
Under the act, land was categorized into four areas
Results of the apportionment Act
The Industrial conciliation Act of 1934
The act was designed to protect white workers from African competition e.g.
Africans were prohibited from forming trade unions.
Africans were made to offer labour at low wages for the benefit of European employors.
The result was that Africans were reduced to manual labourers while the Europeans did the skilled labour.
The poor living conditions of the African communities led to increased nationalist awareness among labourers. This too was intensified by the World War 2 in which African fought hard for the success of the British, just for the British to reward themselves with large tracts of land as African ex-soldiers became more oppressed.
Africans became more agitated making the government to invite more settlers into Zimbabwe. The settlers began to agitate for the formation of a federation comprising Zimbabwe, Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi)
They hoped that if all the settlers in the three territories ganged up they would wield more power at the expense of the African communities.
Central African Federation
In 1953 the British government gave approval for the formation of a central African federation (C.A.F) which comprised of Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi.
The federation was organized as follows:
The resolutions led to mass protests from the Africans. Garfield Todd, the prime ministers of the federation was sympathetic to the Africans hence he legalized trade Unions and gave more funds for Africans education and agriculture.
Later on, Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia which were directly under the British government began to demand political independence especially after Ghana got her independence in March 1957.
In 1963 Central African Federation was dissolved and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became politically independent.
The reign of Ian Smith in Southern Rhodesia
In the 1962 Rhodesia elections, Rhodesian Front Party led by Ian Smith won the election. The extremist party members had no regard for Africans.
In 1965 Ian Smith led the settlers to declare a Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain (U.D.I). This meant that the political leadership of the country was fully in the hands of the white settlers and not the British government.
This also meant that they had rebelled against the British government and were now politically independent.
This declaration provoked instant protests from not only the Africans, but also from the international community for this meant that the new regime would also exploit Africans to a greater extend.
Britain asked the U.N to punish U.D.I. by imposing trade sanctions. However, as a number of countries especially in Africa supported the U.N, others such as Portugal and South Africa continued to trade with Southern Rhodesia making the sanctions ineffective.
In 1970 the U.D.I regime declared itself a republic and established a new constitution which enhanced the position of the whites within the colony. This was done in two ways:
Meanwhile the U.D.I of 1965 provoked Africans in Southern Rhodesia to set up an armed struggle against the colonial government.
The war of independence began in Southern Rhodesia in April 1966. The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) under Robert Mugabe and Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) under Joshua Nkomo formed a patriotic front to evict the settlers from the country. They waged guerrilla warfare against the U.D.I regime.
However there was a lot of pressure exerted within Southern Rhodesia and from her neighbouring countries namely Zambia and Mozambique where the guerrilla were hosted and also from the U.N. This forced the U.D.I regime to give up and in 1980 Zimbabwe became independent with Robert Mugabe as the first Prime Minister.
Effects of the rule of the British in Zimbabwe
Assimilation
The term assimilation means ‘similar to’ meaning that the assimilated Africans were to be same as Europeans in terms of culture.
The policy of assimilation was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal.
The Europeans countries which practiced assimilation believed that their culture and civilization were superior to those of the Africans. The French considered their culture and civilization to be the best in the world, and that French had a mission to educate her colonial peoples in this rich heritage.
In this system, the French destroyed all African chiefdoms and by 1937 only 50 of them existed with little prestige in the whole of West Africa.
Requirements for Africans to be assimilated
As years went by, the policy of assimilation changed to the concept of association, which had been initially developed and applied by Savorganan de Brazza in central Africa and Senegal.
In this policy of association, the subjects were to be left to develop independently within their own cultures.
The policy was turned to when it was realized that it was impractical because non-westerners were racially inferior and would never be accepted as equal to the Europeans.
The French in Senegal
They had a highly centralized system. They believed in efficiency and uniformity.
French acquired eight colonies which were grouped into the federation of French West Africa and were governed from one capital, Dakar in Senegal.
The federation was governed by a governor general who was answerable to the French minister for colonies in Paris and below him were Lieutenant Governor in charge of constituent colonies.
Each colony was divided into units called provinces which were further divided into districts, then locations and sub-locations.
Minister for colonies (Paris)
Governor General (Dakar)
Commandant de carcle (In charge of province)
Chief de sub-division (in charge of district)
Chiefs de Canton (in charge of location)
Chief de village (in charge of sub-location)
However, many of the French colonial officials lacked education. Most of them were military officials who were rewarded with senior posts for their role in colonial conquest. This then led to a lot of inefficiency.
In the French lower House of parliament, there was a representative from each colony.
The policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes i.e. St Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. Elsewhere Africans were ruled through their local chiefs who were in three categories:
The French policy of assimilation applied fully only in Senegal’s four provinces of Goree, St Louis, Dakar and Rufisque. In this the Africans enjoyed full political rights just like the Frenchman e.g.
Characteristics of Assimilation
The French system of assimilation had several distinctive features. These included administrative, political, economic and personal assimilation.
Reasons for Assimilation in Senegal
The population of Senegal, especially in the four communities was prone to assimilation because
The Africans in Senegal enjoyed a privileged status and all the indigenous inhabitants enjoyed civil and political rights equal to those of European Frenchmen.
The term originaires was used to refer to the Africans who were French citizens by birth. The originaries were under the Islamic law unlike other Africans in the west who had to follow the French law.
The Africans who lived outside the four communes could only qualify if they were able to read and write, and had knowledge of the French language, showed loyalty to the French government and worked for a number of years in the civil service.
Why Assimilation failed/Factors that undermined application of the French policy of Assimilation
Consequences/effects of Assimilation in Senegal
Africans from Senegal were allowed to take part in political matters of France e.g. Blaise Diagne was elected as a deputy in the French parliament.
The Policy of Association
This concept had already been developed and applied by Savorgan De Brazza in Central Africa.
In this policy, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial people and allow them to develop independently rather that force them to French culture and civilization.
The French adapted this policy after the failure of the assimilation. In the new policy of association
Comparison between British and French administration
Differences
Main Similarities
The various systems of colonial administration in Africa had the following in common.
However the legacy of colonial administration systems and structures such as provinces, districts and locations is still evident in many African countries to this day.
Topic 4
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE COLONIAL
PERIOD IN KENYA
After establishing a protectorate over East Africa, the British were faced with the challenge of making her new territory economically productive to ease the burden of the British taxpayers.
The administration had to lure Europeans from Britain, South Africa, Australia and Canada to come and settle on the vast empty lands of Kenya.
To make the colony fit for European settlement, certain policies were formulated and structures were put up to facilitate changes in infrastructure, agriculture, education and health.
The Uganda Railway
It was built between 1890 and 1901 with George Whitehouse as the engineer.
Work was done by 32,000 Indian coolies and 5,000 clerks and craftsmen.
It cost the British taxpayers about 6million Sterling pounds.
Reasons for the construction
The construction lacked labourers since the Africans were not willing to offer labour and also lacked technical skills. The British government brought in coolies from India to undertake the construction.
It was accompanied by feeder lines that included Nairobi-Thika, Konza-Magadi, Voi-Moshi, Kitale-Eldoret, Eldoret-Jinja, Gilgil-Nyahururu, Thika-Nanyuki and Kisumu-Butere.
By 1948 the Kenya – Uganda railway network had been linked with the Tanganyika network to form the East Africa railways.
Problems faced by the Railway builders
Results of the Railway construction
Settler Farming in Kenya
The government encouraged settlers to settle in Kenya by providing them with land, loans, labour, transport and security.
The main aim was to raise revenue to meet the cost of administering the colony and building the Uganda railway.
Many settlers took up land in areas that were suitable for cash crops e.g. coffee and tea. They were faced with the problem of
Reasons why settlers were persuaded/encouraged to come to Kenya
Efforts made by the government to promote settler farming
Methods used by colonial government to acquire labour for settlers
Problems experienced by settlers in the early years:
Main crops grown
Coffee
It was introduced by the Roman Catholic fathers of St. Austin’s Mission near Nairobi in 1889.
It was only grown by the whites.
Lord Delamere formed the coffee planters Association in 1908 which encouraged coffee growing. By 1913 coffee crop in Kenya had become a leading cash crop. It was grown in Thika, Kiambu and Murang’a by settlers.
Africans were not allowed to grow it due to the following reasons:
Africans grown coffee would be prone to diseases, which could easily spread to their farms.
Africans lacked knowledge in coffee cultivation therefore would lower the quality of Kenyan coffee.
African labour would not be available for Europeans since they would pay the taxes from the sale of the coffee.
Africans would bring competition to the Europeans yet they were to monopolize it.
Wheat
Wheat was introduced by Lord Delamere in 1903 on his Njoro farm. However his efforts were frustrated by the wheat rust disease. After research, a rust resistant variety was developed and from 1912 wheat farming continued.
In 1908 Lord Delamare set up a flour mill, Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming.
Later on, it spread to Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas.
Wheat was also cultivated by only European settlers from Australia, Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow it after independence.
Sisal
Sisal was introduced into Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a Germany Doctor. It was initially grown around Thika. By 1920 it was 2nd to coffee. It was mainly grown by the Europeans.
The main sisal growing areas were Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Murang’a, Voi, Taita Taveta.
Africans began to grow it in 1964 but faced competition due to the introduction of artificial fibres.
Tea
It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messes Caine Brothers. It didn’t succeed until after 1925.
In 1925, large tea companies e.g. Brooke Bond and African Highlands Tea from India were formed. The steady high demand for tea and coffee made many farmers to grow it on large scale.
The main teabelts were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Murang’a and Kiambu.
Stock Rearing
Exotic breeds were introduced into Kenya by lord Delamere. He tried with sheep and cattle at his equator Ranch in Njoro.
He faced the following problems
He only succeeded after cross breeding exotic types of local stock which gave rise to more resistant varieties.
Delamere’s efforts in dairy farming led to the establishment of K.C.C in 1925. The Uplands Bacon factory was established near Limuru and it promoted pig rearing. In 1930 Kenya Farmers Association was established.
Colonial land Policies in Kenya
The colonial government encouraged farmers to establish large scale agriculture. Land alienation was necessary to make this possible.
Land Acts or Ordinances/Policies
A number of land acts and ordinances were passed by the legislative council to empower the settlers to take up much of the arable lands. Land allocation was based on racial lines in the highlands with Asians and Africans being disregarded. The following policies were enacted
Impact of colonial land policies
The Devonshire white paper (1923)
The formation of the League of Nations marked a major turning point in the history of the British occupation of Kenya.
The league forced the British in Kenya to address the African grievances. In 1922 Sir Edward Northey was accused of having given too much power to the settlers.
This made the British government to change her position in line with the expectation of the League for the maintenance of global peace and security.
Back in Kenya the conflict between European settlers, Asians and Africans on land had intensified.
The following reforms took place in 1922
In reaction to this, in March 1923 a delegation was sent to London by the settlers to settle scores with the secretary for colonies, the Duke of Devonshire. The outcome of this meeting was a fundamental set of principals referred to as ‘The Devonshire white Paper’
Terms of the Devonshire White paper
The paper stated that
Implication of the White Paper
The paper left the settlers, Indians, and Africans more dissatisfied than before.
The Indians
The Settlers
In reality, Devonshire White Paper was an outcome of the struggle between the European and Asians. It later came to be known as ‘the Indian Question’ therefore the Asians joined the Africans in their struggle for freedom especially in the trade Union movement.
The Africans
Significance/results of the Devonshire White Paper
Urbanisation
Before the coming of colonialists, towns such as Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi were already at the coast. Many of the towns that grew up in the interior did so during the colonial time.
Factors that led to urbanization in colonial Kenya
Reasons why African moved to urban centres in colonial Kenya
Results of urbanization during colonial rule
The growth of urban centres had both favourable and adverse impact on the social, economic and political lives of the people in colonial Kenya.
Positive effects
Negative Impacts
Education and Health
Western education and health care were introduced in Kenya by Christian missionaries. The church missionary society (C.M.S) set up schools at Robai in1884 and Mombasa in 1873.
The completion of the Kenya-Uganda railway saw the construction of more schools, churches and hospitals.
Education
Upto 1925 Kenyans were only provided with technical and agricultural skills. The British refused to give Africans higher education as they claimed that they had no mental capacity to pursue higher education.
They therefore gave them industrial education which would prepare them for jobs such as clerks and office messengers.
In response to this, the Africans formed independent schools to provide quality education to their people. Formal education was provided by four groups
However the period between 1940 and 1963 saw a lot of improvement in the provision of education. This was due to the following reasons:
Missionary Education
There was an increasing demand for missionary education and medical work. Reading and writing had become a requisition for which to enjoy better lifestyles.
From 1911, the provision of education spread as the government gave grants in aid of mission schools. By 1926 a good number of Africans had completed primary education and could proceed to secondary schools.
Features of missionary Education
Objectives of missionary education
However they fulfilled their objectives by
Levels of Education
Western education during the colonial period involved three levels.
Primary education
It was begun by missionaries and was later transformed into elementary schools.
It covered class 1-4 and the curriculum included writing, arithmetic, reading, C.R.E and hygiene.
Class 5-7 emphasized on acquisition of technical skills such as carpentry, metal work and masonry. It aimed at providing semi-skilled manpower for the colonial government and settlers.
The Fraser Commission of 1908 had recommended for a racially segregated system of education.
In 1911 the colonial government entered the education sector by building a school at Machakos.
In 1918 the education Commission made the following recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908. It recommended that:
In 1924 the Phelps-Stokes education Commissioners toured Kenya with the aim of identifying the African educational needs. They made the following recommendations
Significance of the Phelps-Stokes Commission on elementary Education It led to the
By 1930 the number of schools in Kenya had risen to over 2,000.
Secondary Education
It was exclusively left for the Europeans. The aim was to eliminate Africans from competing for jobs with the Europeans.
However the Africans pressed the government to address the imbalance. The missionaries took up the challenge in 1926 by forming an alliance of protestant missions and put up the first African secondary school known as Alliance at Kikuyu while the Catholics put up one at Mangu in Thika.
The secondary schools for the whites included
Hospital hill became the first multi-racial school in 1953. The schools for Indians included “the Asian Railway School.
University Education
Initially, university education was only given to Europeans children.
Africans got university education only at Makerere University in Uganda.
Initially, Makerere was a technical college set up in 1922 offering diploma certificates.
It got affiliated to the University of London in 1949 to offer degrees to those graduating from secondary schools in East and Central Africa.
Those Africans who failed to get to Makerere sought education overseas. Mbiyu Koinage was the first Kenyan African to acquire University education.
In 1954 the Royal Technical College offered higher diploma due to pressure by the Africans. It was affiliated to the University of London in 1959 and in 1961 it began offering degree courses.
In 1963 Makerere, Dar es Salaam and Royal College Nairobi were joined to form the University Of East Africa which collapsed in 1977 with the collapse of the East Africa community.
Community Based Education
This was provided by Asians. The Ismaili and Arya Samaj families provided Community based education in urban areas settled by Indians.
Rich men like Allidina Visram set up centres for higher education.
In 1942 education became a must for Asian boys. Mombasa institute of Muslim Education was set up to provide higher level education and training in trade.
By 1954 with the advance of the Royal Training College in Nairobi, they got a chance in higher education in arts, sciences and commerce.
Role of Africans in the provision of education
They began their own schools so as to protect female circumcision and polygamy and to acquire higher education as opposed to technical and industrial education. This was due to their desire to compete for white collar jobs.
The schools were established in
Health
The pioneer settlers suffered from Malaria, sleeping sickness and plaques forcing the missionaries to come up with a good medical system.
The E.S.M and the C.M.S began their work in 1888. Later they opened up medical facilities in Kikuyu, Kaloleni, Kaimosi and Maseno.
Dr. Arthur one of the first missionaries put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 which is today one of the leading mission hospitals.
The main objectives of establishing health centres were
Diseases contracted by World War 2 soldiers such as dysentery, influenza and Typhoid led to the demand for medical knowledge and personnel.
The missionaries responded by starting medical training centres e.g. in 1920 the Alliance medical college was put up.
The passing of the nurses and midwives ordinance saw many African school leaders train as laboratory and pharmacy assistants and some even went to Makerere for further training.
The government made Africans aware of hygiene methods of controlling diseases and also protective measures such as vaccination by missionaries and trained African medical personnel.
In 1921 the Public Health Ordinance empowered the medical department to use preventive rather than curative measures in the whole country for a 10 year period.
In 1948 the Development and Research Authority (DARA) gave 47 000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services.
In 1949 the Bureau of Medical Research was set up. In 1951 the King George IV (today the Kenyatta National hospital) began to train female nurses. By 1962 there were over 100 rural health centres in the country.
Role of Africans in Health Provision
They provided traditional medicine which was dismissed by the missionaries who viewed their traditional methods of treatment as inferior and archaic.
Today traditional medicine is still the best and herbalists are seen as an alternative in health provision.
Topic 5
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPEDENCE IN KENYA (1919 – 1963)
Since 1895 when Kenya became a British protectorate, the Kenyans objective has been
Factors that led to the rise of African nationalism in colonial Kenya
Nationalism was expressed through the formation of several political associations.
Early Political Organizations in Kenya up to 1939
Emergence of many political associations between 1919 and 1939 was attributed to the participation of many African in World War 1. The war made many Africans communities meet and compare their experiences and they realized they had common problems. They also realized that the whiteman was not different from them. He could get wounded and also die. This encouraged them to strive for equal rights with the Europeans. It also gave them unity.
However after the war, the following took place
Characteristics of early political organizations
Kikuyu Central Association
It was the pioneer African political Association in Kenya. It was founded in 1920 by a number of Kikuyu chiefs loyal to the colonial government, but had realized that much of the African land was being taken away by the whites.
It was headed by paramount chief Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu (patron) and Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu as president. Other Members included Josiah Njonjo Philip Karanja, Mathew Njoroge and Waweru wa Mahui.
The association complained about land alienation, the reduction of African wages and the introduction of the kipande through the native Registration Ordinance.
In 1921 I.M Ishmael the secretary sent a letter to the East African Standard denouncing the two issues and equating the kipande system with slavery.
The Association did not achieve much for it was made up of loyal chiefs who didn’t want to differ with the colonialists.
Later, the association attracted Christian converts in central Kenya and Nairobi. Harry Thuku and Abdalla Tairara joined it.
In 1931 Thuku and his followers disagreed with the leaders at a meeting in Dagoretti because of his radical views. He decamped and formed the Young Kikuyu Association.
Young Kikuyu Association
Formed in the June 1921 and had the following founders
Harry Thuku
Abdalla Tairara
Mwalimu Hamisi
Mohamed Sheikh
Thuku was educated at the Gospel missionary Society school at Kambui.
He worked as a telephone operator in Nairobi.
The main reason why the Young kikuyu Association was formed was that the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by the colonial chiefs had failed to press the colonial government for African demands.
Y.K.A under Thuku adopted a mere radical approach which the leaders of the Kikuyu Association disliked.
Thuku with the Y.K.A demanded for the following
This organization was not tribal. Later on, the founders saw the need to bring in many more ethnic groups since they argued that all Africans had similar grievances against the whites. They then made them change the name to the East African Association.
Harry Thuku, through his articles, activities and speeches stressed on the importance of inter-community unity.
The name E.A.A was adopted at a meeting attended by Harry Thuku as a Chairman,
George Samuel Okoth
Abdalla Tairara
Kibwana Kambo (Tanzanian)
Jesse Kariuki
Joseph Kangethe
Z.K Sentongo (Uganda)
Molanket Ole Sempele
James Mwanthi and Mohamed Sheikh
Thuku sought the help of the Asian politicians like M.A. Desai who published the East African Chronicles newspaper and helped to provide vehicles for transport.
He also got in touch with the Pan- African movement by writing a letter to Marcus Garvey and W.E.B Du Bois. He also wrote to the London colonial office and this led to his sacking from government.
He was now able to travel the country widely and publicize his ideas. The Asians gave him a vehicle that enabled him to travel to Kisumu and get in touch with James Beauttah of the Kavirondo Taxpayer Welfare Association.
E.A.A met with a lot of opposition from the Kikuyu Chiefs and Christian missionaries who felt that he undermined their authority by preaching against them.
In the 1920s Thuku became so popular that he organized a rally in Thika that attracted 10,000 people. In this, he basically attacked the colonial chiefs and the white settlers. This made the colonial government organize more rallies through the chiefs to counter Thukus influence.
The E.A.A demanded for the following (at a rally at Ngara 10th July 1921)
The E.A.A. bitterly opposed the introduction of Kipande in 1920 through the native ordinance which stated that it was a criminal offence for any adult African not to have registered as a adult. Africans who left duty were easily arrested and taken back to their employers.
The Africans also got offended by the kipande which apart from stating the wage paid; it was put in a tin hung on the neck like dogs collar.
Harry Thuku was arrested on 15th March 1922 and detained at the Kingsway police station (Central Police Station). This attracted a large crowd of people who demanded for his release. A shootout began and 21 people were killed including Muthoni Nyanjiru who incited the crowd.
Thuku was deported to Kismayu. His friends like Waiganjo and Mugekenyi were banished to Lamu and E.A.A was banned.
Thukus arrest and final deportation led to the following.
Kikuyu Central Association
It was formed from the remnants of Harry Thuku East African Association.
Jesse Kariuki and Joseph Kang’ethe were among the founder members.
It was formed in 1924 at Kahuhia (Fort Hall) now Murang’a with the following
They were regarded as extremists by the colonial government and their activities were closely monitored.
Its objectives
The Kikuyu were bitter because their arable land had been taken by the Whites at a time when their population was increasing very fast.
The association demanded for
However the colonial government saw them as people without direction and didn’t consider the demands of K.C.A seriously. By 1925 the Association had began to attract a large membership. The members began to take an oath of total loyalty to the association.
In 1925 they shifted their headquarters from Fort Hall to Nairobi so as to get into contact with the majority of the Gikuyu elites. In 1928, Kenyatta became the secretary general.
In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was established to look in to the question of the Federation of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika. Beauttah, the K.C.A secretary was appointed to present their views to the commission. He was transferred from Nairobi to ensure he does not appear before Hilton Commission. It was for this reason that Jomo Kenyatta replaced him as secretary.
Kenyatta worked hard to strengthen and broaden the organization e.g. he began a party magazine called Muiguithania (The Conciliator) of which he was the editor.
The following were the demands that Kenyatta presented to the Hilton Young Commission on behalf of the K.C.A
A conflict between K.C.A and the Christian missionaries emerged in the late 1920s over the Agikuyu female circumcision tradition. The Protestants led by the Church of Scotland mission opposed the rite. They argued that it would lead to complications at childbirth and secondly, it was a mutilation of women’s genitals.
K.C.A argued that it was a beautiful cultural practice which would eradicate prostitution in the community.
By then the elites were worried about the increased number of young unmarried women engaging in prostitution in Pangani and Kileleshwa slums in Nairobi.
The old men felt bad about the dowry they were losing from such unmarried women.
The Church of Scotland Mission (CSM), Gospel Missionary Society (GMS) and African Inland Mission (AIM) all fought against female circumcision.
In 1929 K.C.A sent Kenyatta to London to present the Agikuyu grievances to the colonial office. He went with Parrmenas Mukiri. The delegation main issue was land.
It continued to struggle for the African welfare until 1940 when it was banned together with the Ukambani Members Association and the Taita Hills Association.
Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association
It emerged as the Young Kavirondo Association in western Kenya in 1921.
It was founded by mission educated Young men graduates of the C.M.S school at Maseno.
It was started at a Baraza meeting at Ludha in central Nyanza in December 1921. Here, the mission educated Luo and Abaluyia met to discuss various issues affecting the African communities. The meeting called itself ‘Piny Owacho’ (Voice of the People)
The officials included
Jonathan Okwiri as Chairman
Simeon Nyende as treasurer
Benjamin Owuor as Secretary
Reuben Omulo
Ezekiel Apindi
George Okoth
Mathayo Otieno
Joel Omino
Jolmeo Okaka
Demands of Young Kavirondo Association
In 1922, the Y.K.A met with the Nyanza Provincial commissioner to discuss the grievances. They also met with Governor Edward Northey at Nyahera in Kisumu. He then gave in to the following demands
Y.K.A became so popular in Nyanza till a C.M.S Archdeacon Owen was asked by the government to intervene as he had good relation with them. Finally Jonathan Okwiri was convinced to hand over the presidency of the association to Archdeacon Owen in 1923. By then, the leadership of Y.K.A feared that they would be banned like the E.A.A. To them, Owen would
Under Archdeacon Owen, the associations name was changed to Kavirondo Taxpayers Welfare association. Its objectives also changed from political grievances to social concerns which included better food, clothing, education and hygiene.
They resorted to the use of written memorandum to express their grievances to the colonial government. However, those in authority did nothing to address the grievances.
Owen went ahead and started campaigning for
In 1931 the association faced serious problems that led to its splitting into the Abaluyia and Luo factions. The Luo continued to follow Owen while the Luyia formed the North Kavirondo Central Association which remained close to the K.C.A
The Luyia formed the N.K.C.A because they were unhappy with the Kakamega gold rush and land alienation.
By 1944 K.T.W.A had died because many of its top leaders were co-opted into the colonial administration e.g. Jonathan Okwiri was promoted to being a chief, Benjamin Owuor, Simeon Nyande and Jonathan Okwiri were made members of the Local Native Council. This meant that they would not contradict the wishes of the colonial administration.
Ukamba Members Association
It was founded by the Akamba in 1938. The founders were
Like the E.A.A, K.C.A, Y.K.A, the Akamba were concerned about the loss of land to European ranches, taxation and forced labour. They were overcrowded and practiced overstocking which led to serious soil erosion in Kitui and Machakos.
In response to this, the colonial government introduced a destocking policy. A company known as Liebigs Group set up as a meat processing plant in Ukambani. The government began to seize the Akamba animals and sell them to the plant at low prices. This finally provoked the Akamba into forming the Ukambani Members Association.
The founders of U.M.A were close to the E.A.A. e.g. Ali Kironji, James Mwanthi, and Mohammed Sheikh. U.M.A also got support from Indians such as Isher Das.
On 28th July 1938, U.M.A organized for a protest march to Nairobi. The Kamba men, women, and children walked with their animals to Nairobi to protest the seizure of their animals. They were led by Muindi Mbingu. They staged a protest for six weeks demanding to see the governor who talked to them and also gave in to their demands at a meeting in Machakos.
This action didn’t please the colonial administration. Muindi Mbingu was arrested in September 1938 and deported to Lamu.
U.M.A was banned together with K.C.A. Muiguithania journal for K.C.A helped to educate the cause of the Akamba through various activities.
The only unique thing about U.M.A was their ability to mobilize the whole community in a peaceful protest against the government.
Coast African Association
Its formation was influenced by Arabs and Asians who had already formed the Coast Arab Association and the Indian Congress.
The Key leaders of the association included
Committee members included
It demanded for the following
This organization was led by educated African men. They adopted a method of sending memoranda to the government because they were careful not to be punished like the leaders of the E.A.A. and U.M.A.
This approach pleased the colonialists who did not ban the association.
C.A.A set up a newspaper ‘The Coast African Express’ whose editor was Elkana Young. The paper was used to articulate the grievances of the association, and by 1947 it was demanding for representation of the region in the Legco.
In 1955 it began to disintegrate when two of its members, Francis Khamisi and Ronald Ngala joined the Mombasa African Democratic Union and the Legco. This led to leadership wrangles among the members.
Achievements of the Coast Africa Association
Taita Hills Association
It was closely modeled on the K.C.A and U.M.A styles. They had two key grievances
Daniel Mapinga, a young catechist began to mobilize the Wataita against the oppressive measures, but he died in 1937.
He was succeeded by
They used the system of protest letters to the colonial government. This made the government to shelf the plan of moving the Wataita from their ancestral land
On the other hand, the government also reduced the land initially curved out for European settlers.
They stopped the destocking measures against the Wataita.
The association faced two problems
Finally the association was banned in May 1940. Mwambichi was arrested and deported.
Problem faced by Early Political Organizations
Characteristics of early political organizations
Methods used to air their grievances
Achievements of early political parties
Emergence of Independent Churches and Schools
This was an expression of African protest against European colonialism which had interfered with the traditional African economic and political organization.
Why they were formed
The majority of such schools and churches emerged in Kikuyuland, Luyialand and Luoland in 1920s and 1930s.
Characteristics/results of Independent churches and schools
The independent Churches movement in Nyanza
The most outstanding church was that of John Owalo. He received western education from the mission. He started off as a Roman Catholic but soon joined the Church of Scotland mission at Kikuyu near Nairobi, then the church missionary society (CMS) in Nairobi and later in Maseno.
There were two main problems in the mission churches.
In 1907 Owalo claimed to have received direct call from God instructing him to start his own church. The CMS at Maseno dismissed him as a lunatic.
Finally John Ainsworth the P.C. in Nyanza allowed him to start his own church as his teaching upheld law and morality in the society.
In 1910 he founded the Nomiya Luo Church which was the first independent church in Kenya that operated in large urban centres.
He proclaimed himself a prophet of God and doubted the divinity of Jesus.
Other independent churches in Nyanza included:
Dini Ya Roho was founded among the Luyia in 1927 after followers broke away from the Friends African Mission. The members believe in baptism by the Holy Spirit, they spoke in tongues and confessed their sins openly.
The Joroho church was founded by Alfayo Odongo Mango in 1932 among the Luo.
The Universal Evangelical Union was founded by Ismael Noo who was a teacher in a school at Maseno.
Revivalism in Nyanza was led by Noo. The revival movement emphasized on two things:
Noo attracted many women into his movement, provoking complaints from their husbands. He differed with other mission churches in Nyanza over his preaching that men and women should have sexual intercourse since they were all saved.
Eventually Noo broke away from the Anglican Church at a convention at Nyabondo in Nyakach when he established his own church by the name ‘The Christian Universal Evangelical Union’ which changed its name to Christian Evangelical Church in 1965.
The Independent Churches and schools in Central Kenya
Central province experienced the presence of colonial rule more than any other region due to its proximity to Nairobi which was the headquarters of the colonial government in Kenya.
The Gikuyu community came into contact with the C.M.S, C.S.M, Consolata Fathers, Gospel Missionary Society, and A.I.M in the 1890s.
The result was that the missionaries put up many schools, where they taught people basic literacy and numeracy skills that aimed at converting Africans. Africans were to develop ability to read the Bible, the hymn books and the prayer books.
In their evangelization, they condemned polygamy, consumption of traditional brews and female circumcision. This later sparked off the formation of independent churches and schools in central province in 1929.
To the Kikuyu, female circumcision signified attainment of womanhood. To the missionaries, the rite had to be eradicated for it complicated delivery of a child and it was a brutal operation, painful and barbaric.
Kikuyu Independent Schools
The Kikuyu elders wanted their children to acquire education without being Europeanized. This made them put up their own schools since those who supported female circumcision were expelled from mission schools.
The first was built at Gaithieko in Kiambu in 1913 by elders. The land was donated by an elder by the name Mukunga Wa Njehu.
In 1925 a second school was built in Githunguri.
Two independent schools associations were formed:
KISA was closely associated with the African Independent Pentecostal Church while KKEA was closely associated with the Kikuyu Central Association.
KKEA was strong in Kiambu and KISA was prominent in Murang’a, Nyeri and Embu.
Kikuyu Independent Schools Association
Gituamba in Fort Hall provided a base for the Kikuyu movement towards Independence from CMS control in education and religion.
The elders got permission to build a prayer house around Gituamba and soon the Gituamba School was set up between 1929 and 1932.
The success of the Gituamba Independent Church and school inspired the emergence of independent churches and schools in central. KISA was set up to coordinate the naming of those schools. The leaders of KISA were:
It responsibilities were
At the beginning, the colonial authorities had a negative attitude, but they later realized that the Kikuyu elders were serious. They then insisted that the schools be registered at the D.Os and they also be managed well.
By 1935, there were 34 independent schools with a population of 2518, by 1936 they were 3,984. Similar schools were coming up in the Rift Valley among the Kikuyu squatters.
Problems facing KISA
Kikuyu Karing’a Educational Association
There was a female circumcision standoff at Gituamba Church leading to a split that led to the formation of KKEA. There was the Fort Hall group and the Kiambu members. The Kiambu members supported KKEA which was radical and more closely associated with KCA.
The term Karing’a means ‘pure’ meaning that the association advocated for pure Agikuyu customs and values which were not polluted by mission churches and western traditions.
By 1940 KKEA had put up 12 schools in Kiambu and in the Rift Valley. By 1952 it had 28 schools not only in central Kenya and the Rift Valley, but also at Moshi and Arusha in Tanganyika.
In 1932, KKEA put up its own church and the church ministers were trained at the Gituamba Seminary. It was named the African Orthodox church of Kenya. The Church was led by Arthur Gathuna and Philip Kiande.
In 1939 the Kenya Teachers Training College was put up at Githunguri in Kiambu with Mbiyu Koinange as the first Principal.
The aim of the college was to train teachers for the Kikuyu Independent Schools. By 1947, it had over 500 students.
It was closed down together with other independent schools during the Mau Mau uprising.
Problems faced by independent churches and schools
Political Organizations and movements after 1945
There were radical demands for better conditions and full political independence in 1940s due to the following factors:
This led to the formation of nationwide political parties, including the following:-
On 10th October 1944 Eliud Mathu, a graduate from Fort Hare University and Oxford University and a former teacher at Alliance School was nominated to the Legco by the colonial governor.
Later, he together with well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi met in Nairobi and they formed the Kenya African Union (K.A.U)
Aims of K.A.U
Its officials were
Committee members were
Two weeks after its formation, the officials were ordered to change the name to K.A.S.U since it was to be involved in studying the problems facing the Africans.
In 1945 James Gichuru became the president after Harry Thuku stepped down.
Under Gichuru, KASU made a lot of progress e.g. it published a newspaper ‘Sauti ya Mwafrika’ with Khamisi as editor. Gichuru and Khamisi travelled widely in Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika to convince Africans not to accept the proposed federation.
In 1946, the leaders of the association felt that the name KASU was inappropriate since they involved in the political affairs of the country with a view of improving African life. In February 1946, they changed the name to K.A.U.
In 1946 Mzee Jomo Kenyatta came back from London. In June 1949 he was elected president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down. He was assisted by W.W.W Awori as vice president, Ambrose Ofafa as treasurer and Gikonyo Muchohi as secretary.
Objectives
Its demands
To build KAU, Kenyatta appealed for unity and hard work. He travelled and addressed meetings in Nyeri, Kisumu, Eldoret, Mumias, Kakamega, Kiambu and Meru where he urged people to form and strengthen KAU.
In 1947 KAU experienced a major rift in the party between the radicals and the moderates. The radicals led by Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei, and Bildad Kaggia advocated for the use of force while the moderates led by Kenyatta called for the use of a peaceful constitutional reforms.
The radicals took over Nairobi KAU branch. They demanded for the removal of the moderates from the executive committee.
However Kenyatta insisted that the party leadership had to be multi-ethnic and the secretary general had to come from Western Kenya.
When the national delegate’s conference met in 1951, the following were elected
Other problems facing the party were
The Nairobi branch of KAU was led by Fred Kubai as chairman, J.M. Mungai as vice and Kaggia as secretary. The radicals worked closely with members of the Mau Mau movement in Nairobi. This caused a lot of tension between the radicals and the moderates.
The activities of the radials increased when the British colonial secretary refused to meet the KAU representatives, Mbiyu Koinange and Achieng’ Oneko who had a memorandum on the land question.
By 1951, several KAU branches were opened in Kisumu by Oneko, Maragoli by Johana Adala, and Mombasa by Muinga Chokwe. They also held frequent rallies to revitalize the party.
In 1952 Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kaggia and Oneko held a rally in Nyeri which attracted over 25,000 people. This event shocked the colonial government thus the party was banned.
Reports also noted that settlers were attacked and their property destroyed in the rift Valley. In 1952 Sir Evelyn Baring declared a state of emergency following the murder of Chief Waruhiu wa Kung’u by the Mau Mau
This led to the arrest of most KAU leaders, who were believed to be behind the violence. Therefore Walter Odede became the acting president, Joseph Murumbi acting secretary and Awori as treasurer.
KAU continued to press for the release of their detained leaders.
Oliver Lyttelton, the secretary of state for colonies came to Kenya during the state of emergency. KAU presented to him a 24 point memorandum of grievances understood as the major causes of the violence in Kenya, i.e.
They then engaged a British lawyer known as D.N Pritt to defend the Kapenguria six namely Kenyatta, Ngei, Kung’u, Kaggia, Oneko and Kubai.
On 9th March 1963 Walter Odede was arrested while Joseph Murumbi escaped to Bombay. On 8th June 1963 KAU was finally banned.
Achievement of KAU
Other roles played by KAU in promoting nationalism
Mau Mau
The meaning and the source of the name are not clear. To J,M Kariuki the name was derived from the Kikuyu phrase ‘Uma Uma’ which means ‘get out, get out’ It was used to urge people to flee from colonial forces.
The freedom fighters used various names to refer to the organization e.g.
Most of the members of Mau Mau were young men who had been circumcised and some had taken part in World War II.
By 1947 those young men were showing defiance against the colonial government by
They had embarked on a serious oathing sessions in central and parts of Rift Valley.
KAU formed a central committee in Nairobi known as ‘Muhimu” which co-ordinated Mau Mau activities, all over the country.
Causes of the Mau Mau uprising
The course of the uprising
The uprising got support from the unemployed Africans, many of whom were ex-soldiers in the urban centres. Others were traders and the landless squatters in the rift valley.
In Nairobi, its activities were co-ordinated by the Muslim committee which. The Muslims committee organized for oaths
Betrayal of the oaths led to instant death. The movement had headquarters in several places and fighting was mobilized at the district level. The Nyandarua, Aberdares and Mt. Kenya forests were used as hideouts.
The leaders of the movement included Dedan Kimathi, Waruhiu Itote, Stanley Mathenge, General Ndung’u Gicheru, General Mwariama and General Matenjagwo.
The leaders had different armies in different areas such as the Aberdares, Nairobi, Kiambu, Ngong’, Murang’a and Rift Valley. They knew how to use guns and they used guerrilla warfare.
During the war, the guerrilla targeted European settlers, government officials, government buildings, settler farms, Christian converts and all collaborators.
They made their own guns, and robbed others from police stations or snatched them from the Europeans.
Hymn books in Kikuyu were used to spread Mau Mau ideas and to encourage peasants to revolt. By 1952 the Mau Mau ideas had been embraced and most of the peasants boycotted the soil conservation measures imposed on them.
The killing of loyalists to the government like Tom Mbotela and Waruhiu Kung’u made Sir Everlyn Baring declare a state of emergency followed by the arrest of Jomo Kenyatta, Ramogi, Achieng’ Oneko, Fred Kubai, Bildad Kaggia, Kung’u Karumba and Paul Ngei who were KAU leaders. They were jailed for seven years.
Many Africans fled from the reserves and urban areas to go and join others in the forests.
Methods used by colonial government to discourage activities of Mau Mau movement
Women and children played a role in Mau Mau. They
The Asians also gave support by trafficking arms and ammunition to the fighters.
Mau Mau movement was crushed by the superior military of the British. Fighting subsided in 1956 following the shooting and arrest of Field Marshall Dedan Kimathi.
Factors that facilitated the Mau Mau movement (why it lasted for so long)
Problems that Mau Mau fighters faced
Results of the Mau Mau uprising
The colonial government realized that it made a mistake to ignore some of the grievances of the Africans regarding land. It made some reforms.
KANU was formed on 21st March 1960 at Kirigiti, Kiambu during a meeting convened by ex-KAU strongman James Gichuru and Jaramogi Oginga Odinga. The meeting comprised of attendants from over 30 African political groups. Jomo Kenyatta was detention but was elected as president in absentia.
Formation of political parties was allowed by the 1st Lancaster House Conference which was attended by Ngala as chairman, Mboya as secretary and Daniel Arap Moi.
The colonial government refused to register K.A.N.U with Kenyatta as the president. A meeting in May 1960 led to
Objectives of K.A.N.U
Role of KANU in the struggle for independence
Challenges that KANU faced
The release of Kenyatta boosted the party. He was viewed as an eloquent natural leader of the Africans in Kenya, and also a political martyr. He made the party popular.
On 1st June 1963 Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister as Kenya achieved self-government or Madaraka. The Queen of England remained the head of state.
It was formed in 1960 as a way of avoiding Kikuyu and Luo dominance in the political arena
Its senior leaders were
They were from the small tribes and they represented the Kalenjins, Abaluyia, Maasai and the coastal communities.
In May 1961, the first general elections along party lines were held. KANU got 19 seats, KADU got 11 and other parties got 3.
KANU refused to form the government as long as Kenyatta was still in prison. Ronald Ngala was then requested by Sir Patrick Renison to form a minority KADU government in coalition with the European and Asian members who belonged to the New Kenya Party of Michael Blundell. Ronald Ngala became leader of government business and minister for education.
In 1962 KANU and KADU formed a coalition government while awaiting the 1963 general elections. Ngala became the minister of State in charge of constitutional affairs.
At the 2nd Lancaster House conference, Ngala led the KADU group of parliamentarians thereby challenging Kenyatta as the overall nationalist leader.
During the independence elections in May 1963 KANU won 73 seats, KADU had 31 seats and African Peoples Party had 8.
KADU became the major opposition party. In 1964 it disbanded and its members crossed the floor to join KANU after being persuaded by Oginga Odinga and Jomo Kenyatta.
KADU operated for a few years and was able to achieve the following
Problems faced by KADU
It was founded by Paul Ngei, a leader of both KAU and mau mau. Ngei formed the party due to the divisions in KANU and KADU that made the Somalis and coastal Arabs threaten to move from the country. He too feared for the Akamba, hence he formed A.P.P.
However during the 1963 elections KANU won by a landslide followed by KADU, APP and other minority parties got only 8 seats.
In 1964 Kenya became a republic and both APP and KADU decamped from the opposition to join KANU.
Trade Union Movement
A trade union is an association of workers whose main purpose is to improve the welfare of the members through collective bargaining.
The unions worked hand in hand with political parties to achieve political independence for Kenya.
Indians were firs to form trade unions i.e. the Indian trade union in 1914. Most trade unions were formed after the Second World War. They were formed along racial lines. Artisans and labourers were not allowed to join them for they would cause many strikes.
Up to 1914 there existed no African trade union because
In 1922 the Asian artisans in the railway department formed the Railways Artisans Union, Soon their leaders were sacked and the union was closed down.
In the 1930s, the artisans of Mombasa who included masons and labourers held a mass meeting and establish a trade union named Trade Union Committee of Mombasa. This was after Africans got provoked with a tragic accident in which some road constructors died but were not compensated. R.M Shar was appointed the president of the Union.
Indians played a very important role in that they had more experience with workers organizations.
In 1934 the Indian trade Union became the Kenya Indian Labour Trade Union (K.I.L.T.U) to reflect the fact that it drew members from across the whole nation.
In 1935, one of the trade unionist Makhan Singh advised the union to accept membership from all races. They then changed the name to the Labour Trade Union of Kenya, then to Labour Trade Union of East Africa (L.T.U.E.A)
African Workers Federation
The Second World War was important in the development of trade unions in Kenya. The demands of trade unionists in Kenya were
All this led to major strikes in Nairobi and Mombasa.
On 14th January 1947, the striking workers in Mombasa formed the African Workers Union
The strike paralyzed work in offices, banks, hotels, docks and railways. It was on this day that AWU was born with
A committee of 12 members was also appointed to assist the elected officials.
On January 21st 1947 the union sent a letter to the East African Standard Newspaper in which it outlined the workers grievances that led to the strike. These were
During the strike, the Mombasa D.C invited the newly appointed member to the Legco, Eliud Mathu to talk to the workers. He
Later, a trade dispute tribunal was set up by the government to look into the African grievances in Mombasa. It was led by:
The Africans who made contribution to the tribunal were
The success of the Mombasa strike made AWF more popular. Chege Kibachia travelled all over the country to educate Africans on the importance of trade unions. He put up branches in Nairobi, Thika, Kisumu and Nakuru.
His activities like threatening to call a nationwide strike alarmed the government and he was arrested and detained at Baringo. His colleagues were repatriated to their respective reserves where they were monitored.
Achievements of A.W.F
Kenya Federation of Labour
After the declaration of a state of emergency in 1952, the government took drastic measures against Africans. This involved:-
This led to the loss of members for the unions and the membership dropped from 40,000 in 1952 to 14,000 in 1956.
A trade union ordinance was enacted in 1952 which allowed formation of unions. Various small African trade unions united to form the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (K.F.R.T.U). The small unions included
The officials of K.F.R.T.U were
The members were S. Ondiege, Elkana Okusimba, Silas Okeya, David Jomo, S. Osore, James Wainaina and Dishon Sambili.
K.F.R.T.U did the following during the time of emergency
When elections for K.F.R.T.U were held later on, the following were elected as officials
David Njomo as president
Stephen Obwaka as vice-president
Tom Mboya as secretary general
G.W Owuor as assistant General Secretary
Daniel Ng’ethe as treasurer
John Opiyo as assistant Treasurer
In 1955 K.F.R.T.U changed its name to the Kenya Federation of Labour (K.F.L). By 1956 the organization was representing 35,000 African trade unionists.
Tom Mboya travelled widely and established links between K.F.L and other international trade unions. As a result, K.F.L was affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (I.C.F.T.U) which helped to check the excesses of the colonial government. This alarmed the government and the white settlers.
In 1956 a letter from the register of societies was sent to KFL notifying it that it would be dissolved. KFL mobilize its members locally and internationally to petition against its cancellation. The cancellation was withdrawn.
Role of K.F.L in the campaign for Workers Welfare
The Role of Trade Unions in the struggle for independence
Problems faced by Trade Unions
To date, trade unions continue to play an important role in fighting for the welfare of workers. Examples of trade unions are Kenya National Union of Teachers and C.O.T.U
Role of women in the struggle for independence
In Kenya women played an important role in the struggle for independence
Role of women in political association
Role of Women in the Mau Mau movement
The following are some of the contributions of women to the freedom movement.
After Mau Mau, a good number of women were recognized, such as Jemimah Gechaga who was the first woman nominated to Legco, Priscillah Abwao was the first woman at the 1st Lancaster House conference 1960, an Grace Onyango became the first mayor of Kisumu after independence.
Role of civilians during the struggle for independence
Constitutional changes leading to independence
Factors that promoted decolonization in Africa
All these led to
African demand for representation in the Legco led to Eliud Mathu becaming the first African to be appointed in the Legco.
Ohanga Beaniah became second following KAU demands.
After Mau Mau, the government set came up with several commissions which included
In 1954 Oliver Lyttelton, the British colonial Secretary visited Kenya and made proposals for the following constitutional reforms.
In March 1957 the first African elections to the Legco were held. The winners were
After the elections, the elected African members of the Legco formed an organization known as African Elected Members Organisation (A.E.M.O) with Jaramogi Odinga as Chairman and Tom Mboya as secretary.
Demands of AEMO
Two Africans in the council opposed the Lyttelton constitution because it strengthened the position of the Europeans.
The Europeans led by Captain Briggs objected the involvement of Africans and Asians in the political management of the economy.
In 1955 the government lifted the ban on political organizations, except in central where mau mau was still on. The Africans were allowed to form local district based political organizations. This led to the formation of
Oliver Lyttelton was succeeded by Lennox-Boyd as secretary of state for colonies in 1957. On his visit to Kenya he made proposals for further constitutional changes. These were
AEMO members opposed the idea of the specially elected members of the legco saying that this was undemocratic. They boycotted Legco from 1958-1959.
However Musa Amalemba and Wanyutu Waweru were elected to the Legco as special members. They were then branded traitors. Amalemba later was appointed the 2nd African minister for Housing in 1958.
The AEMO members were sued by the government for libel, i.e. they discourage candidates from accepting special seats. They then called on D.N. Pritt, Kenyattas lawyer to defend them. They were fined 75 pounds each.
There was division between moderates led by Blundell and extremist led by Captain Briggs.
In 1959 Michael Blundell resigned from his Agricultural ministerial post and formed the New Kenya Party (N.K.P) He was backed by 46 non-African members of the Legco who supported his ideas.
The European radicals formed the United Party (U.P) led by Captain Briggs. They demanded that the Legco be abolished and be replaced with regional assemblies. Their aim was to preserve the white highlands for the whites.
A division also emerged in AEMO. The moderates led by Ngala, Muliro, Mate, Moi, Towett and Jeremiah Nyagah resigned from AEMO and formed the Kenya National Party (KNP). It advocated for multipartism. The party was joined by all the Asians, Arab members and one white member of the Legco.
The radical members of AEMO led by Odinga, Mboya, Gikonyo Kiano formed the Kenya Independent Movement (KIM). They opposed multiracialism. Their party was purely for Africans. They demanded for
Lennox Boyd was later succeeded by Ian MacLeod
Lancaster House Conferences
By 1959 the colonial government was committed to remove all racial barriers and grant political independence to Africans. The Lancaster house conferences were convened to iron out these differences whereby there was an open opposition between the radical Europeans and AEMO who were opposed to multi-racialism.
The first Lancaster House Conference (1960)
This meeting was convened in London at the Lancaster house, the Headquarter of the British colonial office in January 1960.
It was convened by the secretary of state for colonies Sir Ian MacLeod. All members of the Legco attended the conference. They were led by Ronald Ngala as chairman and Tom Mboya as secretary.
The Africans demanded for
The following decisions were reached
This conference was an important milestone in African political development in Kenya. In this, the Europeans lost their bid to dominate in Kenya. Some began to leave the country.
On the other hand, Africans felt that it failed to give them a responsible government though 4 of the elected African members of the Legco accepted ministerial positions reserved for Africans
Among the African communities, new alliances were formed due to the high hopes of independence
These political groups were formed due to the fear of political domination by the larger ethnic groups e.g. the Luo and the Agikuyu.
In 1960 more members of the Legco joined KANU and KADU.
When the first general elections were held in 1961 KANU beat KADU and KANU gave the release of Jomo Kenyatta as their condition for agreeing to form a government. Ronald Ngala was requested by the colonial government to form the government with KADU together with other European and Asian members.
When Kenyatta was released, Kariuki Njiiri offered him his Murang’a constituency seat therefore enabling him to join the Legco.
The Second Lancaster House Conference
It was called by the Colonial secretary Reginald Maulding in 1962. The main goal was to draw an independence constitution acceptable to the two major African parties KANU and KADU. KANU was led by Kenyatta and KADU was led by Ngala. KANU favoured a unitary system of government while KADU was for a federal constitution.
After a lengthy discussion KANU gave in to the wishes of KADU for a federal government. This was for the sake of speeding up political independence.
A Constitution was therefore formed on a majimbo system with a provision for six regions. The Legislature was to consist of two chambers, the senate and the lower house.
In May 1963 elections, KANU won 73 seats while KADU won 31 and APP won 8 seats. Jomo Kenyatta then became the Prime Minster on 1st June 1963 (Madaraka day). This meant that Kenyatta controlled only the internal affairs and defense dockets were still under the control of the British government.
On 12th December Kenya attained full independence meaning that Kenya could now run all her internal and external affairs. Kenyatta was the Prime Minister while the Queen of England remained the head of state.
On 12th December 1964 Kenya was declared a republic with Kenyatta as an executive president. In this the Queen of England ceased to be head of state.
Topic 6
RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
Nationalism is defined as the desire for independence and self-determination among a group of people. Oppressive colonial rule Africans were subjected to is what led to nationalism.
Factors that led to the rise of nationalism in Africa
Internal factors
External factors
In Africa, political freedom was achieved through struggle. Where colonial government exploited, humiliated and oppressed Africans, the reaction was violent e.g. in Algeria, Kenya, Southern Rhodesia, Mozambique and South Africa. Where colonial powers were not exploitative and harsh e.g. in Nigeria, Uganda and Tanganyika, nationalism was less violent.
Rise and growth of African Nationalism in Ghana
Ghana was initially known as the Gold Coast. The first people to settle there were the Portuguese and their interest was trade in gold and other goods.
They then named it the gold coast with reference to the vast gold deposits in the area. From the 15th century, a lot of gold was mined and sent to Portugal. The Dutch, British and the Danes joined the Portuguese later on.
Some communities in Gold Coast welcomed the trading opportunities. They opposed any form of European political dominance. That is why the Asante led by the Asantehene organized stiff resistance which was crushed and he together with the Queen Mother were deported to Seychelles
In 1865, the Fante Confederation was formed to oppose the British domination. In 1897, the African elites and chiefs formed the Aborigines Rights Protection Society mainly to guard against the alienation of African land by the British. This was the pioneer modern nationalist organization in Ghana.
By 1930s, a large group of western educated Africans were not happy with the colonial order in the country. J.B Danquah launched the Gold Coast Youth Conference that aimed at awakening the youth to the economic and social needs of the country.
The African elites who included lawyers, journalists, teachers and business men demanded an end to the economic and social injustices and wanted more political rights.
The government led by Governor Burns reacted by revising the constitution to increase African representation in the Legco. African representatives in the Legco increased to 18. 13 were drawn from the chiefs and 5 were elected popularly.
The African communities rejected the change. They regarded the chiefs as mere instruments of the colonial control. What followed was the formation of the United Gold Coast Convention (U.G.C.C) led by Danquah. In 1946, Kwame Nkurumah came to assist him organize the party.
Nkurumah attended the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia USA and got a law degree. He had the academic qualification and enough political experience having taken part in the 1945 Pan-African congress in Manchester.
On 12th June 1946, Nkurumah broke away from U.G.G.C to form Convention Peoples Party. The party condemned colonialism and the structure of authority in which Ashanti chiefdom had a lot of power. Nkrumah introduced a red white green flag for his party, a party salute and composed slogans and songs.
The party became vibrant and popular among the youths.
Factors that led to the growth of nationalism
In 1948, the ex-soldiers protested to the governor Sir Gerald Creasy against the unfulfilled promises they made to them when they were in service. This included good jobs and more opportunities for social advancement.
During the protest, two ex-servicemen who had gone to present a petition to the governor were shot dead. This led to the Accra riots of 25th February 1948. There was also high inflation.
At the same time, the Africans in Gold Coast had began to boycott Asian shops causing a lot of tension and chaos in Accra, the capital. 29 people were killed by colonial authorities. Nkurumah, Danquah, William Ofori, Addo, Adjei and Obetsebi Lamptey were arrested and confined in different areas in isolation.
A commission led by Andrew Watson was set up in 1948 to find out the causes of riot. It concluded that the oppressive, socio-economic and political environment were the cause. A new constitution was therefore needed.
On 8th January 1950, Nkurumah advocated for positive action through
He started a paper known as ‘The Accra Evening News’ to advance the grievances of the Africans. He was later arrested and charged with incitement.
However he was released when he won the February 1951 elections by landslide majority. He became the leader of government business in the cabinet.
In 1954, National Liberation Movement (NLM) was formed with majority of members drawn from Ashanti community. They opposed Nkrumah because he was from a little known community in Southern Ghana and favoured unitary system of government. Ashanti wanted federalism. Secondly, he had very radical ideas unlike the conservative traditional leaders. As a result of opposition, elections were held in July 1956 whereby Nkurumas Convention Peoples Party won with a landslide majority.
On 6th March 1957, the country attained political independence under Nkurumah. The name changed from Gold Coast to Ghana. It was the first African country to get political independence. To Nkrumah, independence was meaningless unless the rest of Africa was freed from the yoke of colonialism.
Role of CPP in leading Ghana to independence
Role of Ghana in inspiring other African countries to fight for political independence
Nationalism in Mozambique
Portuguese settled in Mozambique with an interest in gold trade at Sofala. Most traders settled in river Zambezi valley. The agriculturalists joined the African communities and shared lifestyles.
However, given that Portugal was poor with agricultural economy and high levels of illiteracy, little money was available for running colonies. Colonies had poor infrastructure and lacked facilities.
Between 1940 and 1950, Mozambicans travelled to South Africa, S. Rhodesia, N. Rhodesia, Tanganyika, Kenya etc and came back with liberation attitude. They opposed oppression, economic exploitation etc.
Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique
The peak of nationalism in Mozambique
Early 1960, Makonde people of Cabo province founded Mozambican Makonde Union (MANU). In June, it held a protest outside the Portuguese administrative office in Mueda. They resisted arrest and 600 of the m were massacred. All political parties with more than 30 members were banned. Activities of parties were held underground.
In 1962, Julius Nyerere invited different liberation groups from Mozambique and encouraged them to set up headquarters in Dar es Salaam. MANU plus two others relocated. Nyerere advised them to merge leading to formation of Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) with Eduado Mondlane Chirambo as its founder president.
In 1961, Mondlane resigned from his U.N job after noting problems faced by Africans under Portuguese. He made contacts with Mozambicans in exile. From 1962 to 1964, preparations for war using guerrilla tactics were made. Training was done in Bagamoyo, the Mozambique Institute, and in Algeria.
From September 1964 FRELIMO embarked on a full scale war targeting Portuguese military bases, communication and transport lines in different parts of the country. Portuguese called for more reinforcement (had 65,000 troops by 1967)
Strengths and Weaknesses of FRELIMO
Problems faced/weaknesses
After the assassination of Mondlane, Samora Machel took over in 1969 as an army commander and later the president. Following the events in Portugal leading to coups, an agreement to hand over power to FRELIMO was signed in 1975. Samora became the first president. He died in 1986. His widow Graca Machel married Nelson Mandela in 1994.
Nationalism in South Africa
African nationalism began in 17th Century against the Boer racist policy of apartheid that was advanced against the indigenous Africans. They resisted the Boer interference in their political freedom and economic resources.
In 1866, gold and diamonds were discovered in Transvaal. This made the British to stay on and occupy large areas of South Africa in order to amass the mineral wealth. They clashed with both the Africans and the Afrikaners (Dutch speaking settlers)
In 1906, a Zulu chief named Bambata led an uprising against the British rule and like Cetewayo who had tried so earlier; he was captured and taken into exile.
In spite of this oppressive environment, Africans could vote and contest in parliamentary if they fulfilled certain qualification set up by the Europeans.
In 1910, the union of South Africa was created and the Afrikaners took political control of South Africa from the British. This led to the Africans losing all their political freedom. New oppressive laws aimed at subduing them were passed. In reaction, Africans founded independent churches and formed new local organizations e.g. the Orange River Organisation. This aimed at puting power in the hands of Africans. Nationalism began.
Factors that led to the growth of nationalism in South Africa
The African National Congress (A.N.C)
South African Native Congress was the earliest political organization in S. Africa founded by
In 1923, it changed its name to ANC led by D.D Jabavu and Rev Dube. The organization favoured non-violent resistance as advocated for by Mahatma Gandhi. From 1940 to 1949 A.B Xuma was the president of ANC
World War II saw an influx of Africans in South African urban centres to provide labour. Many of the educated Africans were able to secure professional and clerical posts. This provided a favourable platform for African nationalists in the post war era to spread their ideas.
In 1943, a radical youth league was formed to use militant action to attain national liberation. It got support from the African-Americans who insisted that the Europeans must leave Africa for Africans. The leaders were
In 1948, the Nationalist Party led by Dr. Malan won the election. The party introduced the apartheid policy against the Africans and other non-whites. They advocated for a programme of total European supremacy.
In 1949 the youth league adopted a militant programme of action that agitated for strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience against the apartheid regime. This led to violent confrontation against ANC and the government in 1952 in Witwatersrand, Kimberley and Eastern Cape.
The Freedom Charter
In 1952 Albert Luthuli became the president of ANC. During his tenure, the organization became so popular. He then convened congress for ANC, South African Coloured People’s Organisation and South African Congress of Trade Unions.
The delegates of the congress adopted a ‘freedom charter’ which declared that South Africa belongs to all who live in it both black and white.
This annoyed the apartheid regime who arrested 56 people and confined them for 5years.
In 1956, a split emerged in ANC. Some supported the Charter while others exclusively agitated for African nationalism.
Those who agitated for African nationalism formed the Pan-African congress (PAC) led by Robert Sobukwe. He believed that all evils of apartheid were to be fought by all means available including the use of violence.
In 1960, Robert Sobukwe and Albert Luthuli announced a nationwide campaign against the press laws that were only applicable to the Africans. During the campaigns, 67 adults and 200 innocent Africans including school children were seriously injured. This was the Sharpeville massacre of 1960. Over 2000 Africans were detained and ANC and PAC were banned.
The immediate result was that many African political parties went underground. Nelson Mandela formed the fighting wing of ANC ‘Umkhonto we Sizwe’ i.e. spear of the nation.
P.A.C also formed its own wing known as Poqo.
In 1963, the apartheid police discovered the underground headquarters of ANC at Rivonia in Johannesburg. It led to the arrest of Mandela and other leaders of PAC. Mandela and Walter Sisulu were found guilty of organizing a violent movement against the government. They were all condemned to life imprisonment. Many of the ANC and PAC members went into exile from where they conducted their activities.
The Black Consciousness movement
In June 1969, a black medical student called Steve Biko formed an all black movement that was to spread the philosophy of black consciousness, since all other political expressions were outlawed.
Biko believed that Africans in South Africa needed to develop confidence in their own capacities. He expressed his views through student organization, but he gave up when he realized that the multiracial National Union of South Africa students (NUSAS) discriminated against African students.
In 1969 Biko and other African students formed their own all black organization, The South African Students Organisation (SASO). Biko organized a series of meetings with religious organizations. It was through this that they got to understand the concept of black consciousness which later spread throughout the country among the black communities.
In 1972 he made an impact when the black Allied Workers Union was formed as an umbrella organization for the growing number of black trade Unions. The workers began to organise strikes and boycotts to compel the employers to heed to their demands.
High school students from South Africa and the neighbouring African countries formed a movement that was closely associated with that of Steve. The journalists formed the union of black journalists. The clergymen also formed their own.
On 16th June 1976, many school children demonstrated against the apartheid regime. They protested the use of Afrikaners as a language of instruction in schools. The result was over 360 school children were killed and thousands were arrested.
As a result Steve Biko was arrested. He died in police custody on 12th September 1977. In 1977 all black consciousness organizations were banned and their leaders imprisoned. Their papers namely The World and the Weekend World were also banned and their editors jailed.
The Peak of Nationalism in South Africa
In May 1963 the South African premier P.W. Botha introduced constitutional amendment to the house of assembly that provided for three chambers in the house, namely
The aim of this amendment was to divide the black nationalists, by giving the coloured more political privileges. Each chamber was only to deal with matters affecting their ethnic groups. National matters were tackled by the three chambers, where the whites had a lot of control.
The new arrangement didn’t please the Africans and neither did it please the white nationalists. The Africans felt that it aimed at denying them the right to vote while the right-wing nationalist felt that it was a departure from the policy of apartheid. Radical Afrikaners led by Eugene Blanche used all means e.g. violence to make sure that apartheid was weakened.
This led to political resentment and upheavals in South Africa in the 1980s. Africans formed underground political groups that attacked the government e.g. a powerful bomb made by Africans killed 18 people in Pretoria to express their hatred for the new constitution.
Some of the radical organizations that emerged were the United Democratic Front U.D.F and the National Front (N.F). The church too led by Desmond Tutu joined and he won the Nobel peace prize in 1984.
In 1988, the government realized that ANC and UDF were united and it declared a state of emergence that lasted one year. Africans responded with violent protests in the form of school riots, bus boycotts, and municipal workers strikes in urban areas. At the end, 1000 people lost their lives and more than 8000 people were imprisoned. The funerals were used by Africans to spearhead their views.
The international community noted that there was not going to be peace in South Africa as long as the policy of apartheid prevailed. The insecurity also kept off the foreign investors. Later in 1985 the US congress voted for economic sanctions against South Africa and fifty USA co-operations terminated their operations in South Africa, denying the country large profits. This made South Africa begin to experience problems in repaying her foreign debts.
Due to international pressure, P.W. Botha was replaced with Fredrick De Klerk in 1989. He was a moderate. He began by releasing Walter Sisulu and other prisoners except Mandela who had refused to denounce violence as a method of the struggle for freedom.
In February 1990 De Klerk lifted the ban on all anti-apartheid movements.
On 11th February 1990 he released Nelson Mandela, after 27 years in prison.
In 1991 he repealed some of the oppressive racist laws that were used to ban all political parties.
African nationalism took a new turn. ANC and the Inkatha Freedom Fighters led by Mangosuthu Buthelezi enjoyed lots of support from the Zulu and other Africans.
Unfortunately during their campaign, bloody clashes were usually experienced between ANC and IFP supporters because Buthelezi advocated for a federal government while ANC wanted a unitary government. This made IFP to call for postponement of elections until the issue was sorted out. This stalemate led to the intervention of the U.S. secretary of state Henry Kissinger and Lord Carrington of the United Kingdom, but they failed. It was until a Kenyan diplomat Professor Washington Okumu came in that it bore fruit. In April 1994 elections were held, and ANC won by a landslide.
Nelson Mandela, a former prisoner was sworn in as the president of the new South Africa on 10th May 1994. All sanctions placed against the apartheid regime were lifted and the country became a member of the commonwealth, United Nations and the Organisation of African Unity.
Some of the people who played an important role in the struggle for independence are Nelson Mandela, Walter Sizulu, Oliver Tambo, Albert Luthuli, Steve Biko, Robert Sobukwe and Desmond Tutu.
Nelson Rohihlahla Mandela
He was born at Umtata in the Transkei on 18th July 1918. His name Rohihlahla means pulling the branch of a tree, or trouble maker. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa was a traditional chief. His mother Nosekeni Fanny was a Christian who sent Mandela to school. He proceeded to Fort Hare University for further studies. However he was expelled due to stubbornness. He fled home to avoid marrying and ended up in Johannesburg where he met Walter Sisulu and Oliver Tambo.
They joined ANC and helped to establish ANC Youth League. He became its secretary in 1947 while pursuing law degree at the University of South Africa.
In 1952 he was elected deputy president of ANC and got involved in defiant campaigns against apartheid. He helped formulate The Freedom Charter in 1955 which demanded equal rights for all races in the country.
He gave up on non-violent resistance following ban on ANC after Sharpeville massacre.
They began an underground movement of armed resistance called Umkhonto we Sizwe which sabotaged vital government facilities such as railways, telephone and power installations.
In 1962, he addressed Pan African freedom conference in Ethiopia, had audience with Labour party of Britain, and undertook guerrilla training in Algeria. He visited Tanzania, Kenya and Zambia where he got overwhelming support by African nationalists.
He was arrested on 5th August 1962 for leaving the country illegally and organizing African workers strike. Together with him were Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada, Elias Motsoaledi, Govan Mbeki, Mhlaba and Dennis Goldberg. They were sentenced to life imprisonment and confined to Robben Islands, except Goldberg who was taken to Pretoria Central prison.
Mandela was released from prison on 11th February 1990. He was elected president of ANC and South Africa. He eased tension between whites and blacks by preaching the concept of a ‘rainbow nation’ (various races)
He also established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission that was headed by Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu to investigate apartheid human rights violations.
Internationally, he helped in redeeming Libya from a pariah status i.e. convincing the Libyan Colonel Muammar Gaddafi to hand over the Lockerbie bombers to the Pan Am Airliner to the I.C.J for trial. Eventually sanctions against Libya were lifted.
In a very important milestone for democracy for Africa, Mandela handed over power to his deputy Thabo Mbeki after ANC won the 1999 elections. In his farewell speech he said
‘I step down with a clear conscience, feeling that I have, in a small way, done my duty to my people and my country’
Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe
Born in 1924, he was educated at Fort Hare where he met students from all over Africa. He was able to identify with the problems faced by Africans from various communities in South Africa.
He was a journalist and he used his skills as a journalist to promote the course of African nationalism. He was the editor of a newspaper known as The Africanist. He later left it to join the University of Witwatersrand where he became a language assistant at the university. He came to believe that African liberation could be achieved through armed struggle.
In 1959 he founded the Pan African Congress Party in South Africa with the aim of using armed struggle to win political independence. He was arrested during the Sharpeville massacre of 1960 and imprisoned in Robben Island. On completion of the jail term, he was detained in his home area of Kimberley until 1978 when he died.
Chief Albert Luthuli
He was born in 1898. He was a school teacher and a government chief in Zululand.
He was strongly devoted to the struggle for the rights of Africans and finally he rose to become the national president of ANC in 1953.
He was greatly inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy of Satyagraha (non-violent campaign) in fighting against the racist’s campaign.
He was put under house arrest between 1953 and 1956. He played a big role in the African bus boycott at Alexandra in1954. This withdrawal led to the reduction of fares for the Africans.
He took part in the drafting of the freedom Charter.
In 1961 he was awarded the Nobel Peace prize in recognition of his efforts in fighting apartheid using peaceful means. In the same year, he published his famous book entitled ‘Let my people go” He died in 1967 after falling from a moving train, though a lot of foul play was suspected. Some believed he could have been pushed out of a moving train.
Methods used by African nationalists in South Africa
Problems encountered by the Nationalists in South Africa
Topic 7
LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS
JOMO KENYATTA
The name Kenyatta was acquired from the Maasai ornamental belt called kinyata that he was fond of wearing. He added the name Njomo, a Kikuyu word for a sharp sword used by boys while herding cattle. It was later shortened to Jomo.
He was born between 1889-1895 to Muigai of the Magana clan at Ng’enda in Gatundu Division, Kiambu district. His Kikuyu name was Kamau wa Ngengi. He lost his father when he was young and was brought up by Ngengi who married his mother Wambui.
He joined the Thogoto School where he obtained elementary education in reading, writing, agriculture and carpentry skills.
He was circumcised in 1913 and he became a member of Kihiu Mwiri/Mobengi age group. He was baptized ‘Johnstone’ in 1914.
He married Grace Wahu in 1919.
In 1922, he secured a job with the municipal council of Nairobi as a store clerk and water-meter reader.
He opened a shop at Dagoretti named ‘Kinyatta’ where people gathered to socialize as they took liquor.
Role in Politics
He joined KCA in 1924 where he worked with James Beauttah and Joseph Kang’ethe. He later became the secretary of the party due to his good command of English.
In May 1928 he became the editor of Muiguithania. The paper encouraged the Kikuyus to take their children to school and also supported the practice of female circumcision.
It was printed by the Asian-owned press, showing his ability to work with diverse groups of people.
In 1928 he accompanied KCA officials to give evidence to the Hilton Young Commission.
In 1929, he was sent by KCA to Britain to present African grievances to the colonial secretary.
In 1931 he went back to England accompanied by Parmenas Mukiri to present KCA grievances before the Joint Select Committee on Closer Union of East African Countries. In this, he stated that Africans did not support the idea of a federation. This idea was shelved by the colonial government.
1932 to 1933 he studied political science and politics at Moscow University at the invitation of Padmore, a Pan-Africanist from Trinidad. However, Padmore disagreed with the Russians, making Kenyattas studies to be cancelled. He went to Britain to pursue his studies in Anthropology and Economics at the University College, London.
In 1936 while in London he expressed solidarity with Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia after the Italian removed him from power in 1935.
In 1938 he published his book Facing Mt Kenya in which he taught the Agikuyu culture.
He also met nationalists from India and Nigeria which inspired and changed his views. He also expressed his views in an article called ‘Give back our land” which was published by a communist paper, the Sunday worker.
Kenyatta and Pan-Africanism
He was one of the founder members of International Friends of Abyssinia Organisation that condemned the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935.
Together with others, he set up the International African Services Bureau to propagate the Pan-African movement.
He addressed rallies in London attacking British colonial policies such as the Carter Land Commission and the destocking policy among the Akamba in 1938.
He later settled down in Britain as a farmer and married Edna Clarke.
In 1945 he helped in the organization of the Pan-African Congress in Manchester where he met Pan-Africanists such as W.E.B Dubois and Kwame Nkurumah. In the meeting they agreed to fight for the freedom back at home, and they adopted the slogan ‘Freedom now and Africa for Africans’
Role in the Struggle for independence
Kenyatta took over the presidency of KAU after James Gichuru stepped down in his favour.
He agitated that independence be achieved through negotiations. He conducted rallies all over the country to promote nationalism.
The ex-soldiers formed Mau Mau which terrorized white settlers and put pressure on them to leave. This led to the declaration of a state of emergency and in 1950, Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei, Achieng Oneko, Kung’u Karumba and Kenyatta were arrested and charged with involvement in the mau mau. They were sentenced to seven years in prison by the judge R.S. Thacker at Kapenguria. They served with hard labour and his detention made him a national hero.
Kenyatta was not a member of the mau mau movement. He disliked their violence, but the colonial government argued that his speeches and writing stirred people to violence.
Rawson Macharia was a Kenyan lawyer who was bribed to give false evidence against Kenyatta. His detention at Lokitaung’ in North Western Kenya caused a lot of public concern. Ambu Patel formed the Jomo Committee to mobilize support for him. Oginga Odinga also put a lot of pressure on the colonial government to release him together with the African elected members of the Legco.
Kenyatta was elected the president of KANU in absentia. When KANU won elections, the leaders refused to form a government until Kenyatta was released.
He was released in August 1961 and got to parliament as an Mp for Murang’a after Kariuki Njiiri stepped down for him. In 1962 he attended the second Lancaster House conference to discuss constitutional amendments.
On 1st June, Kenya attained internal self government (Madaraka) and Kenyatta became the Prime Minister.
On 12th December 1964, Kenya became a republic with Kenyatta as the first president.
His role in nation Building
Kenyatta formed a government of national unity by convincing KADU and APP to join KANU. His motto was Uhuru na Kazi.
However he encountered the following challenges
However he worked hard to eliminate problems of poverty, ignorance and disease. He did this through the spirit of Harambee. He also urged Kenyans to work hard in the spirit of self reliance.
Internationally he supported the liberation of other African countries. He joined OAU, Commonwealth and embraced the principle of non-alignment.
However in 1977 he suffered a mild heart attack and on 22nd August 1978 he died peacefully in his sleep. He was laid to rest at a mausoleum at parliament buildings, Nairobi. He was succeeded by Daniel Arap Moi.
His son Uhuru Kenyatta followed the footsteps of his father becoming the KANUs presidential candidate in 2002 and he lost. However he became the leader of the official opposition party in Kenya, then in 2007 he became the Deputy Prime Minister and later on in 2009 as a Minister for finance.
TOM MBOYA
He played a vital role in the labour movement and politics in Kenya. His determination and ambition to achieve his goals earned him the nickname ‘sungura mjanja’ among his peers.
Early life
He was born on 15th August 1930 on a settler sisal farm at Kilimambogo, near Thika. He was a son to Leonardus Ndiege and Marcela Awuor from Rusinga Island, Nyanza.
He learnt at Donyo Sabuk primary school, then went to St Mary’s Yala, then to Mang’u. He was not able to continue with his education due to lack of fees.
He later undertook a sanitary inspector’s course at the Kenya Sanitary Institute at Kabete.
There he was elected the president of the students council, an experience that later influenced his political career.
In 1951 he secured a job with the Nairobi Municipal Council as a sanitary inspector. He hated the European racism against the Africans; hence he joined the trade union movement. He then became the chairman of the Kenya Health Inspector Association.
Role in the Trade Union movement
He joined politics through the trade union movement. In 1950 was employed in the Nairobi city council where he realized the injustices against the Africans e.g. they got low pay, and had poor housing and were segregated upon.
In 1952 he joined the Nairobi Local Government servants Association in which he was the vice Chairman.
In 1952 he declared the association as a trade union.
In 1953 he registered the Kenya Local Government Workers Union.
On 12th September 1953 he became the acting Secretary General to the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions, on which he was confirmed as secretary General in 1953.
In 1954 the colonial government launched operation Anvil in which all adult males were arrested and screened. Mboya however escaped detention by ensuring that all his actions as a trade unionist were within the law.
He got support from the international confederation of trade unions. He established the Tanganyika Federation of Labour and the Uganda Trade Union.
In 1954 he visited Brussels and wrote an article that highlighted problems facing workers. He was able to be granted a scholarship to stay at Ruskin College, Oxford to study labour related matters.
In 1955 there was a strike at Mombasa dock workers. He used his negotiating skills and tactics to strike a deal between the dockworkers and the government. He also organized trade union courses in various parts of the country.
Later, he left Ruskins College where he studied economics, political and industrial relations. While there he published a book ‘The Kenya Question, An African Answer’.
In 1956 he held a conference at the Transport house in Britain where he touched on the following issues
He then travelled to the USA on a lecture tour before returning to Kenya. He appealed for funds to put up a labour Centre in Kenya and an American Trade Union scholarship programme for Africans in Kenya.
His role in politics
In 1952 a state of emergency was declared. In this a number of KAU leaders were arrested and detained. This annoyed him hence he joined KAU and was given the post of Director of information in the party.
In 1953, he became the treasurer while Fanuel Odede was the chairman of KAU. Here they continued to pursue the ideal of the founder members of KAU. This led to the banning of KAU in 1953 making Mboya to channel his energy towards the Kenya Local Government Worker Union where he was the general Secretary.
1957 he was elected to join Legco as a member of Nairobi East constituency under the Lyttelton constitution.
He joined hands with his Legco members and formed AEMO which
In 1958 he visited Ghana which had become independent under Kwame Nkurumah. In Ghana he was elected chairman of All African People Conference in Accra.
He got an honorary doctorate from Harvard University and got scholarship for Kenyan students, what came to be known as ‘student’s airlifts’.
In July 1958 he became the president of his own political party, The Nairobi Peoples Convention, which campaigned for Uhuru na Kenyatta.
In 1960, he was one of the delegates to the first Lancaster House Conference which lifted the ban on political parties. He was one of the founder members of KANU and was elected secretary General.
In February 1961, he contested for the Nairobi South seat to Legco and won. In 1962, he attended 2nd Lancaster conference that led to coalition government of KANU and KADU.
In 1964 he was appointed minister for Labour. He then took leave from KFL to concentrate on the Africanisation policy. He also welcomed foreign aid in form of money, skills and ideas.
Mboya after Independence
In 1963 he was appointed minister for Justice and constitutional affairs. He was vital in constitutional amendments that removed the regional assemblies and the Senate and created a republic with an executive president.
In 1964 he was appointed the minister of Economic planning and Development.
In 1965 he developed a social economic and political master plan ‘the Sessional Paper No 10’ on African socialism and its application to planning in Kenya.
He drafted the 1966-1970 Development plan for Kenya
1966 as a secretary to KANU, he organized a conference at Limuru to unite the radicals and the moderates in KANU.
He was assassinated outside a pharmacy in Nairobi on 5th July 1969.
RONALD GIDEON NGALA 1923-1972
He was born in 1923 at Vishakani village, Kaloleni division of Kilifi District at the Coast.
He went to Buxton Primary School in Mombasa, then to Alliance High school.
He then went to Makerere where he graduated with a diploma in education. He returned to Buxton as a teacher and rose to the position of a headteacher. He then became a supervisor of schools in Mombasa.
Role in Politics
He was very vocal on issues affecting Africans such as low pay, discrimination and poor working conditions.
As a member of the parliament
KADU formed the government and it argued that it was only the African in effective political positions who could pressurize for the release of Kenyatta.
Kadu was supported by the settlers, now Kenya Party and the Indian Congress.
In 1962 he pressed for a federal (majimbo) constitution while KANU wanted a unitary government.
A majimbo constitution was adopted, and KANU and KADU formed a coalition government, and Ngala became Minister of state for constitutional affairs and administration.
In the May elections of 1962, KADU lost to KANU and KANU formed the first independence government and Ngala became the leader of the opposition.
In 1964, after being persuaded by Oginga Odinga, he led the KADU members in voluntary dissolving and joining KANU. This was done to promote unity.
In 1966 he served as minister for co-operatives and social services, then as Minister for power and communication.
He died in 1972 in a road accident near Konza at the age of 49 years. His son Noah Katana Ngala replaced him as the Mp for Kilifi until the 2002 elections when he lost his seat to a NARC (National Rainbow Coalition) candidate.
OGINGA ODINGA
He was born in 1911 at Nyamira Kango, Sakwa location in Bondo District.
He began his education at Maranda Primary, then went to Maseno intermediate school, which was headed by Carey Francis.
In school with his friends he formed an organization known as the Coast Boys Association.
He completed the primary school certificate between 1933 and 1934 and trained as a lower primary school teacher. He then joined Alliance High School where students from Nyanza formed the Nyanza Alliance Boys Society.
Later he went to Makerere where he studied for a diploma in education.
He was invited by Carey Francis to teach at Masesno School. There he hated the European teachers’ attitude that Africans cannot hold any responsibility. He never used his Christian name of Obadiah Adonijah but always wanted to be known as Oginga Odinga.
In 1943 he joined the Maseno veterinary school where he rose to the post of the Principal. In 1946 he was suspended from the college for being rude
Role in Politics
All through his education he hated the superiority felt by the Europeans. However equipped with good education and the brains to fight for self-rule, he joined other nationalists in politics.
After being expelled from Maseno, he got into business and formed the Luo Thrift and Trading Company. He used the paper known as Ramogi to promote the activities of the Luo Thrift and trading Company. Other publications included Nyanza Times, Radioposta, Sauti ya Mwafrika and Mumenyereri.
1956 and 1957, Ramogi house and African House were built in Kisumu. He formed the Luo Welfare Association that had branches in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, who all joined hands to form Galamoro Luo Union and Odinga was their patron.
During the Mau Mau wars of 1952, Ambrose Ofafa was killed. Odinga encouraged the Luo not to join the colonialists and therefore kill fellow Africans. He then began to solicit funds to put up Ofafa Memorial hall in Kisumu in 1957 which became the headquarters of the Luo Union.
Political contribution 1948-1963
In 1948 Kenyatta visited Kisumu together with KAU leaders. He gave a speech in which he urged the people to prepare to shade blood to attain independence. Oginga promised that Kenyatta and the Luo would now work together.
In 1947, he was elected a member of central Nyanza District Council.
In the Legco, he became the chairman of AEMO whereby he together with others rejected the Lennox-Boyd constitution.
In this year, a split occurred within AEMO whereby Masinde Muliro, Daniel Arap Moi, Benard Mate, Taita Arap Towett, Jeremiah Nyagah and Ronald Ngala formed the Kenya National Party. This party was joined by the Asian and Arab members of the Legco.
Odinga Oginga, Mboya, Gikonyo and Kiano formed Kenya Independence Movement, with Mboya as the secretary, Kiano as Chairman and Odinga as President.
After the first Lancaster House conference in London, odinga and other members met in Kiambu to form KANU. James Gichuru was the acting president, Odinga his vice, Tom Mboya as secretary.
Odinga travelled to the East i.e. U.S.S.R, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania and was accused of being a communist.
In 1963 he became the Minister for home affairs in coalition government.
Odinga after Independence
When Kenya became independent in 1964, Kenyatta appointed Odinga as his vice president as a reward for his support and that of the Luo. He was also the Minister for Home Affairs.
Soon, Odinga opposed Kenyatta over land policy. Together with radicals like Bildad Kaggia, Odinga demanded that mau mau fighters be compensated, the landless be given free land and the nationalization of some companies and active trade unionism.
On the other hand, Kenyatta-Mboya moderate camp wanted a gradual change from colonization to independence, hence they agitated for
Odinga found himself in a difficult situation. He was accused of smuggling arms from Russia, so as to topple the government. He was then attacked in the press by his colleagues who insisted that Kenyatta sacks him.
To solve this, the Limuru Conference was held, and a plan was hatched out to appoint seven other vice presidents representing six regions and Nairobi. Odinga was kicked out of his influential position. In response, he resigned as the country’s vice president and minister for Home Affairs. This was followed with resignation of 29 more members of parliament together with two Ministers namely Achieng’ Oneko and Okello Odongo.
Odinga then formed an opposition party K.P.U which was frustrated by KANU through the snap elections.
He wrote a book ‘Not yet Uhuru’
In 1969 he travelled to Kisumu to open the Russian Hospital built by Russia through his efforts.
During the opening, Kenyatta publicly attacked Odinga prompting people to stone his motorcade since they believed the government had a hand in the killing of Tom Mboya. In retaliation, the police opened fire killing 13 people and injuring many others.
It was followed with the detention of Odinga, Oneko and the banning of KPU. Odinga got into political wilderness until the introduction of multipartyism.
In 1971 after detention he bought a KANU membership card but was thrown out on grounds that he had not shown a true change of heart. He then concentrated on being the leader of the Luo and his business of farming.
In 1980, he was appointed the chairman of the Cotton Lint and Seed marketing Board by President Daniel Arap Moi. He was also given life membership card by Moi.
However, he was thrown out of politics when he described Kenyatta as a land grabber at a public rally in Mombasa.
In 1982 he attacked the government about corruption and leasing of military bases to foreign powers. This made the government declare Kenya a one party state, for it feared that Odinga will form another party.
Odinga was suspected to have played a role in the 1982 coup. He was detained at home. His son Raila was detained and some of his friends sacked from Parliament e.g. Peter Oloo Aringo.
In 1984 he formed an organization known as RADET (Ramogi Development Trust) that aimed at alleviating poverty in Luo Nyanza. It was denied registration.
In 1987 he resorted to writing open letters to president Moi on his way forward for Kenya.
Odinga and Multipartyism
He was at the forefront in the struggle for the re-introduction of pluralism in the 1990’s. In the 1990, he linked up with Kenneth Matiba, Charles Rubia and Raila Odinga to publicly campaign for change. In July they wanted to hold a rally at Kamkunji, but the government denied them a permit and they were detained.
In 1991 he formed National Democratic Party (NDP) which was denied registration.
He then teamed up with Masinde Muliro, Martin Shikuku, Philip Gachoka, George Nthenge and Ahmed Bamahriz and formed FORD (Forum For Restoration of Democacy)
With repealing of section 2a of the constitution, it evolved as the opposition party.
Unfortunately the party split into two with FORD-Kenya for Odinga and FORD ASILI for Matiba. This made Moi win and Odinga became the leader of the opposition.
However he served as the leader of the opposition but met with opposition from his members namely Kiraitu, Muite, Farah Maalim and Gitobu Imanyara for deciding to co-operate with the government.
However he died on 20th January 1994 and was replaced by his son Dr. Oburu Odinga as the M.P for Bondo.
DANIEL ARAP MOI
He was born in 1924 in Kapkorios village, Sacho location of Baringo District in the Rift Valley.
He was born from a poor home. He lived his life herding sheep and goats.
His father died when he was four years old. He was then educated by his uncle, senior chief Kiplabat who took him to the African Inland Mission School at Kabartonjo.
He walked for long distance to school and would then look after cattle. He was baptized Daniel. He left Kabartonjo and joined Kapsabet where he sat for the Nyanza Competitive Examination and passed.
He was encouraged by the missionaries to train as a teacher.
In 1944 he joined the Kapsabet Government Teacher Training College and later Tambach. Government African Teachers College. Among his other teachers were Argwings Kodhek.
In 1948 he began his teaching career at Tambach Government School. Later he was transferred to Tambach Teachers College where he served as an assistant principal
In 1955 he was transferred to Kapsabet. Through teaching, he shaped his personality and got introduced to public life.
His role in Politics
He was elected to the Legco in 1955 after the resignation of J.M Ole Tameno. Together with other elected members of the Legco he demanded for more African representation in the Legco. He also argued for the lifting of the state of emergency.
In 1957 the Lyttelton Constitution provided for the election of African representation to the Legco. Eight members were elected with Moi being elected to represent the Rift valley.
In 1959 he became the first national leader to visit Kenyatta in Prison in Lokitaung Lodwar.
In 1960 he was elected KADU chairman with Ronald Ngala as president and Masinde Muliro as vice president.
In 1961 Moi together with other KANU and KADU leaders visited Kenyatta in detention at Maralal. He stood on a KADU ticket in the 1961 elections and won with an overwhelming majority. He was elected secretary to the Ministry of Education. Eight months later was made Minister for Education.
In 1962 he played a vital role in the Lancaster House conference that led to the positive steps towards independence.
He served as President of Rift Valley regional assembly in the independence majimbo constitution.
In 1964, Moi and other KADU leaders dissolved their party and joined KANU to promote national unity. In the KANU-KADU coalition he served as local government minister.
In 1966 he was elected the KANU Rift Valley vice president. In that year, Murumbi resigned as vice-president and Moi was appointed vice president and minister for Home Affairs.
In 1968 he became leader of government business.
As a vice president, he represented Kenya in many international forums where he talked against tribalism which endangered national unity.
On 22nd August 1978 President Kenyatta died in Mombasa and Moi succeeded him as Kenya’s second president. He spoke strongly against corruption and other social injustices. He therefore launched the ‘Nyayo’ philosophy of peace, Love and unity.
His achievements
Problems associated with Moi’s era
However both internal and external pressure forced Moi to give in to multi-partism by repealing section 2A of the constitution in 1991. He retired as president after the 2002 general elections in which he handed power over to Mwai Kibaki of NARC party.
He retired as KANU chairman in 2003 after failing to convince Kenyans to vote for Uhuru Kenyatta. Kibaki has been the president since then, being described by political analysts as a hands-off president whose second election in 2007 witnessed bloodshed and displacement of people from the Rift Valley (IDPs) following the disputed results released by ECK. ECK was disbanded and an Interim Independent Electoral Commission (IIEC) put in place. It proved to be effective after conducting peaceful referendum vote on the new constitution on 4th August 2010, which was promulgated on 27th August.
The flawed 2007 elections saw nullification by the court of the election of nine MPs. They lost their seats and by-elections were conducted.
WANGARI MAATHAI
Professor Wangari Maathati was born on 1st April 1940 in Ihithe village near Nyandarua ridge in kikuyu. She was born to Muta Njugi and Lydia Wanjiru.
She went to Ihithe Primary School, then St. Cecilia Intermediate School till 1956. She joined Loreto Girls High school in Limuru for her secondary education. She interacted with girls and nuns from different ethnic backgrounds which made her trust people and also work hard.
In 1960, she got a scholarship to pursue university education in USA where she obtained a Barchelor of Science degree from Benedictine College in 1964.
In 1966 she studied for a masters Degree in biological sciences at University of Pittsburg in Pennysylvania.
In 1967, she got a job of research with University of Nairobi.
In 1968, she enrolled for a doctorate degree at University of Giessen in Germany.
In May 1969, she got married to Mr. Mwangi Mathai
In 1971, she became the first woman to receive a Ph.D in East and Central Africa.
In 1974, she became a senior lecturer in Anatomy and became an associate professor in 1977. She campaigned for working women to be given house allowance.
In 1979, she divorced her husband.
Activism, environmental and community services
1973-1980, she was the director of Kenya Red Cross Society, Nairobi branch. She was also a member of the Kenya Association of University Women.
1971 to 1987 she was an active member of of National Christian Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK) which unified all women groups in the country. She became its chairperson from 1980 to 1987.
She was a chairperson of Environmental Liaison Centre which facilitated the participation of non-governmental organization in the work of the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). She gained a lot of experience in environmental matters and began the idea of tree planting to reduce environmental problems.
On 5th June 1977, NCWK planted seven trees at Kamukunji Park in honour of historical community leaders. This led to what came to be called the Green Belt Movement.
The Green Belt Movement is an organization involving women in tree palnting in order to preserve the environment and to improve the quality of life of the women of Kenya. Maathai believed trees would provide shade, employment opportunity, protection of watersheds and soil, and also provision of food for both humans and animals.
Green Belt movement has planted more than 20 million trees in schools, churches, peoples homes and other public places. Such ideas have also spread to Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Lesotho, Ethiopia and Zimbabwe.
Maathai and Politics
The Green Belt movement joined other organizations in demanding for constitutional reforms to make the government more accountable. Wangari fought against queuing voting method introduced by KANU
In 1989, she opposed the proposed 60 storey building of Times Media Trust Complex which was to be KANU headquarters at Uhuru Park. She wrote protest letters to Ministries, NGOs directors and British High Commissioner. The project was stopped. However, Green Belt Movement was evicted from government offices.
In 1992, Wangari participated in the formation of the pro-democracy movement called Forum for the Restoration of Democracy (FORD). Their believe that the government wanted to assassinate some of its members led to arrest of Wangari and other leaders. They were charged with spreading malicious rumours and treason. The international body pressed for her release.
Afterwards, she joined a group of women known as Release Political Prisoners (RPP) who pressed for the release of political activists like Koigi wa Wamwere. They camped at Freedom Corner at Uhuru Park. As a result, political prisoners were released early 1993.
Wangari started Jubilee 2000 in September 1998 which pressed for cancellation of heavy debts owed by poor countries in Africa.
She also led in the war against corruption (grabbibng of public land) and destruction of environment.
In 2004, she became the pioneer African woman and environmentalist to win the Nobel Peace Prize for her contribution towards sustainable development, democracy and peace. She also won the Conservation Scientist Award.
In 2002, she was elected to parliament to represent Tetu constituency on National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). In 2003, she was appointed Assistant Minister for Environment, Natural Resource and Wildlife until 2005.
Topic 8
THE FORMATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
GOVERNEMNT OF KENYA
After 1963 Kenya adopted the parliamentary government, i.e. one made up of the Legislature, executive and judiciary. The three arms of the government operate a system of checks and balances.
The government is based on parliamentary democracy, i.e. the people elect their own leaders through the electoral process.
The M.Ps forms the legislature and therefore make the laws while the executive arm implements them. The judiciary ensures that nobody violates them.
Moreso, there’s an effective defense force that protects the country from external and internal attacks.
The electoral process in Kenya
Kenyans choose the president, members of national assembly, senate, the deputy president and members of county government they want after every five years.
The elections are organized by The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission of Kenya (IEBC) which replaced the Electoral Commission of Kenya (ECK). Kenya has 290 electoral units (constituencies). Methods used to elect the Mps include the use of Queuing (mlolongo) which is no longer used, acclamation and secret ballot.
In 1969, elections were delayed for one year while in 1983 they were conducted before the expiry of the five year period. This was done to restructure the political situation following the 1982 attempted coup de tat.
Voting in Kenya is based on universal suffrage, i.e. one-person-one vote.
Functions of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission of Kenya
Each party list of nominees must comprise appropriate number of qualified candidates based on gender. Each partys list for national assembly must reflect the regional and ethnic diversity of Kenyans. The seats are allocated to political parties in proportion to total number of seats won at the general elections.
Requirements for political parties
Parties are prohibited from
Types of Elections
They include the following:
A by-election will be held within 90 after the seat has been declared vacant.
Reason for election/Importance of elections
Principles of the electoral system inKenya
Electoral Regulations
Electoral regulations are contained in
Stages of the Electoral process in Kenya
Voters are provided with information, materials and programmes to inform them about voting process for a particular election Such information include eligibility to vote, where to register, type of election, who the candidates are and how to file complains.
Civic education may include system of government, nature and powers of elective offices, principles of democracy, rights of citizens, law and order and conflict resolution. Voters will therefore understand their responsibilities during elections, the need to vote and benefits of voting.
For one to be registered, he must be a Kenyan citizen with an original I.D or passport, Be above 18 years old, Not have been convicted of election offence and not have been sentenced to serve more than 12 months in prison. He must be of sound mind. It is illegal for any person to register as a voter in more than one constituency or twice in the same constituency.
Party nominations. For one to be nominated for a county position, one must
One can be disqualified from county elections if the person
A parliamentary candidate
One can be disqualified as a member of National Assembly if he/she
An MP may lose a seat in parliament when he/she
Qualifications for nomination as Presidential Candidate
One is not qualified if
Presidential candidate, whether independent or party candidate must garner 50% plus 1 in all votes cast in the election, and 25% of the votes cast in more than 24 counties.
President elect is sworn in by Chief Justice on Tuesday after 14 days. If there is a petition challenging his victory, he will be sworn in 7 days after a court has ruled in his favour. A president can run for only two terms of 5 years each.
The office of the president can be declared vacant due to:
The nominees to vie for different seats are presented to IEBC for formal nomination to contest.
After nominations, the candidates and the parties will meet the people to sell their ideas. Candidates are supposed to promote voter education and condemn violence. Campaigns end 12 hours before the polling day.
Factors that undermine elections in Kenya
Solutions
Responsibilities of IEBC
Election Officials
The Formation of Government
Devolved government
Devolution refers to granting of powers from the central government of a sovereign state to a lower level such as a region. A devolved government is a form of government in which there is transfer or allocation of authority and power from the central government a local government.
In a devolved government, power and resources are decentralized. Part of political and economic decision making is transferred to the people at county level.
Objectives of devolution of government
Principles of devolved government
The National Government
The constitution of Kenya (2010) provides for the formation of a national government. Article 1 of the constitution states that all sovereign power belongs to the people of Kenya, who either directly or indirectly, exercise their sovereign power during elections at national and county levels. After elections, the winning party and the elected president will appoint cabinet secretaries from among the professionals to form the executive. The president will also appoint members of judiciary with the advice of the Judicial Service Commission and National Assembly will approve.
The president can be removed from power through a motion of impeachment, or the Supreme Court can also nullify the results of presidential election.
However even after the dissolution of Parliament, the cabinet exists until a new one is appointed. This is done to ensure that there’s no vacuum.
The new government then has the following roles to play
Formation of County Government
The constitution provides for a devolved government in which we have 47 counties. Article 176(1) provides for formation of a county government consisting of county assembly and county executive. The assembly will have elected members and the executive will have members appointed by the governor from outside the assembly.
The County Assembly
It is composed of
To qualify to be elected as county assembly member
Disqualification for a county seat
Functions of the county assembly
Note that the laws made,
The law making process will be like the one in national assembly, but less elaborate.
The county executive Committee
Composition
The county governor can be removed from office on the following grounds
Vacancy in the office of county governor
The deputy will resume the office for the reminder of the term of the governor. If he/she is unable, the speaker will take over until elections are held in sixty days.
Powers and functions of County Governor
Functions of the deputy governor
Functions of the county executive committee
The boundaries of the counties may be changed on recommendation of an independent commission set up by parliament. To change the boundary, the following must be considered
Functions and powers of the county government
Cooperation between national and county government
The national legislation must prevail at all times. This is necessary for
Challenges facing county governments
The National Government
The Legislature
It is also referred to as Parliament. It is the law making organ. It is made up of the national assembly and the Senate.
Composition of the National Assembly
Composition/membership of the Senate
Kiswahili, English and Kenyan sign language are the official languages to be used.
Parliament will have a quorum of 50 members for National Assembly and 15 members for Senate.
Offices of Parliament
The Speaker and Deputy Speaker
The speaker is elected from among persons who are qualified to be elected as members of Parliament but are not such members. The deputy is elected from the members of each of the houses.
The office of the speaker becomes vacant
The speaker is the spokesman of the national assembly although he is an ex-officio.
When there is a tie in voting in parliament, he has a casting vote, which means that his role determines the winner.
In Parliament, the speaker is accompanied by a ceremonial mace while he is on the chair. This is a symbol of constitutional authority of the national assembly and the speaker’s office.
Since independence, Parliament has had six speakers namely Muinga Chokwe for upper house and Humphrey Slade for lower house in 1963, In 1964, Slade became the first speaker for a single house, Fredrick Mbiti Mati 1970, Moses arap Keino 1988, Prof Jonathan Ng’eno 1991, Francis ole Kaparo 2004, and Kenneth Marende 2007.
The roles of the speaker
Party leaders
The constitution provides for a leader with the largest party or coalition of parties to be leader of majority party while the leader of minority party shall be the person who is the leader in the National Assembly of the second largest party or coalition of parties. Party leaders
Function of Parliament
Functions of the National Assembly
Functions of the Senate
The Process of Law Making
It is done when the speaker or deputy speaker is present and there’s quorum of 50 members of the National Assembly or 15 members of the Senate.
A proposed piece of legislation (law) is called a Bill. We have public and private bills.
A public bill can be a government or private member bill.
The public bill deals with public policies that affect all citizens of Kenya
A private bill affects particular persons, associations or people living in a small part of the country.
Government bills are introduced by ministers while private bills are introduced by back benches.
There is a Money Bill. Such a bill deals with taxes, payment of charges by the public, issue of public money, raising or quaranteering of any loan etc. Such a bill can only be introduced in the National Assembly.
Before drafting a bill, government departments consult and ascertain the validity of the intended bill. If it is recommended, then the bill is drafted by the government draftsmen in the Attorney General Chambers, known as the Parliamentary Counsel.
When the cabinet is satisfied with the draft, it is published in the Kenya Gazzette for at least 14 days before its introduction in parliament.
This is meant to give the public a chance to view and criticize the bill.
The draft proposed is also given to the parliament for consideration to give members a chance to research on it and prepare for a debate in future.
Before a bill is considered by National Assembly or Senate, the two speakers must consult to determine whether it concerns a county or a nation, or whether it is a special bill or an ordinary bill.
A bill passes through the following stages
A bill is introduced into parliament by the clerk to the national assembly. When he reads the title of the Bill, it is defended by the Minister in charge who refers it to the relevant departmental Committee made up of 11 members who go through the bill clause by clause. The committee looks at the bill and reports to the house within seven days.
After seven days, the bill is read and moved by the minister in charge, then seconded by a Cabinet Secretary.
At this stage, all the principles of the bill are discussed through an open debate, and where possible amendments are made. Members get a chance to add other clauses or delete some sections. The MPs can also reject the bill at this stage.
If a bill is rejected or deferred, it cannot be taken back to the parliament until after six months. This gives the department or private member from which the bill originated time to rethink and redraft the bill.
A small group of members elected by the house scrutinize and analyze the bill and incorporate all the recommendations from the second reading. The committee then reports to the house.
The chairman of the committee reports to the house on behalf of the committee. The members of the national assembly confirm whether or not their proposals have been taken into account. If accepted, the bill proceeds to the third reading.
The bill is further debated on and further amendments made to the bill if need arises. If it is approved, it is passed to the president for his assent.
If the president approves the bill and signs it; it becomes an Act of Parliament and is gazzetted as one of the laws of the country. The president has to act within 14 days.
If the president rejects the bill, it will be taken to the parliament for amendment considering the presidents reservations. The parliament can still pass the bill without amending it. It is then resubmitted to the president for assent within seven days.
If the president assents, the bill becomes an act of parliament. It is then published in the Kenya Gazzette. It becomes a law on the 14th day after publication.
Special Bills from the Senate can be amended by the resolution of two-thirds of the house. If the National Assembly fails to pass the Bill, it will be taken to the president to assent in its original form within 7 days.
Ordinary bills concerning counties, if rejected by one house, will be referred to the mediation committee for deliberations until a consensus is reached. The committee is made up of equal members from both houses. It is appointed by the 2 speakers. Once approved, the bill is taken to the president for assent within 7 days.
Parliamentary Supremacy
Such supremacy is provided for by the constitution. Parliament is supreme in that
Limitations of parliamentary supremacy
Merits/advantages of parliamentary supremacy
Demerits of parliamentary supremacy
The Executive
It is the arm or branch of the government that implements laws made by legislature. It handles general administration of the country. It comprises the president, deputy president, the cabinet and civil servants.
Powers and functions of the president
The Deputy President
The deputy can only serve for two terms.
The Cabinet
The cabinet comprises of the President, deputy president, Cabinet secretaries (between 14 and 22) and Attorney General.
Cabinet Secretaries are appointed with approval of National Assembly. They are not MPs. They can be dismissed by president or reassigned. Dismissal may result from gross misconduct, crime committed or violation of constitution.
Roles/ functions of the Cabinet
Secretary to the cabinet
The person is nominated and appointed by the president on recommendation by the National Assembly. He can also be dismissed by the president or resign by writing to the president
Responsibilities
Principal Secretaries
The person is in charge of State department administration. Hes appointed by the president on recommendation of the Public Service Commission and approved by National Assembly.
He/she can resign by giving written notice to the president.
The Attorney General
AG is nominated and appointed by the president on approval of the National Assembly.
Functions include
Githu Muigai took over the office of AG from Amos Wako in August 2011
Director of Public Prosecutions
Is nominated and appointed by the president on approval of the National Assembly. He/she holds office for a term of 8 years.
He shall consider the interests of the public, administration of justice and need to prevent and avoid abuse of the legal process.
Functions
Keriako Tobiko was appointed to this office in July 2011 by the two principals.
The Public Service
Values and principles of public Service
Public servants are employed by the Public Service Commission, which also promotes and manages the affairs of PSC.
PSC has a chairperson, vice, Secretary appointed for a term of five years, and 7 other members. The president appoints members of PSC with the approval of the National Assembly.
For one to join the PSC,
The PSC has the following functions and powers
National Security
National security is the protection of Kenya’s territory against internal and external threats.
Operations of National security must adhere to the law, democracy, human rights and freedoms, and adhere to the cultural diversity of Kenyan communities.
It is subject to the authority of the Constitution and Parliament.
There is National Security Council whose main responsibility is to exercise supervisory control over national security organs.
The Council consists of the President, Deputy President, 3 Cabinet Secretaries i.e.for defence, Foreigh Affairs, and Internal Security. It also has Attorney General, Chief of Kenya Defence Forces, and Director General of National Intelligence Service and Inspector–General of the National Police Service.
Functions of National Security Council include
Composition of national security
The National Security organs objective is to promote and quarantee national security.
The Kenya Defence Forces
Kenya established her own defence forces in 1963. These are
The Kenya Army which protects the country against external land-based attacks,
Kenya Navy which protects Kenya against sea-borne invasions, illegal landings and departure and unauthorized fishing
Kenya Air Force which helps in control of locust invasions.
Functions
Challenges facing the Kenya Defence forces
It is an independent civilian government agency dedicated to protecting the national security interests of Kenya and safeguarding its citizens from threats such as terrorism.
Functions include
Challenges facing the National Intelligence Service
The National Kenya Police
The National police are trained at Kiganjo in Nyeri. They include the Kenya Police Service and the Administration Police Service.
There is Inspector General of the National Police Service who is appointed by the president with approval of the Parliament. Under him is Deputy Inspector-General for each of the two services. The two are appointed by the president on recommendation of the National Police Service Commission.
The composition of the Commission
Functions include
Functions of the National Police Service
Challenges facing the National Police Service
Measures taken/possible solutions to improve national security organs
Correctional Services
In 1963, Kenya enacted the Prisons Act to harmonize the treatment and conditions of offenders in Kenya’s penal institutions.
In 2001, Kenya Prisons Reform Programme initiated reforms based on human rights in the prisons. The reforms led to interactive collaboration between prisons, courts and National Police Service. It led to improvement in the management and conditions of the prisons.
We have open institutions which hold prisoners convicted of less serious crimes and closed institutions for offenders imprisoned for a long time e.g. Kamiti Maximum Prison.
Functions of correctional services
Challenges facing correctional services and possible solutions
Reasons for overcrowding in the prisons
Reforms introduced by the Kenyan Government in the Prisons
In 2003 the vice-president and Minister for Home Affairs Hon Moody Awuor proposed the following to rehabilitate the living conditions in the prisons.
The Judiciary
It is the one that administers justice through the court system. It consists of the judges, Magistrates and other judicial officers. Courts are graded according to the seriousness of the cases they handle and the punishment they give. Some courts can hear cases from particular areas like districts while others have power to hear cases from countrywide.
Jurisdiction refers to the right or power to administer justice and apply laws.
The courts and tribunals are guided by five principles in exercising their judicial authority
Court System in Kenya
The court system consists of
The Supreme Court
It’s the highes court and operates from Nairobi. It’s the final court.
It consists of Chief Justice (currently Dr. Willy Mutunga 2011) as the president, Deputy Chief Jusctice (currently Nancy Barasa 2011) and five other judges. They are appointed by the president on recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission and approval of the National Assembly. They retire at the age of 70 years.
For one to qualify,
Fucntions
The Court of Appeal
It’s the second highest in the land. It has 12 judges appointed by the president on recommemndation of the JSC. Each judge must have 10 years experience as superior court judge or a distinguished academic or legal practioner.
Its function is to listen to appeals from High Court or any other court or tribunal set up by parliament.
It has no original jurisdiction (power to hear and determine cases brought to it for the first time)
The High Court
It began as the Majesty’s Court for East Africa in 1897. In 1902 it came to be known as the High Court of East African Protectorate based in Mombasa.
In 1921 a new supreme court was created and its headquarters moved to Nairobi. It was later changed to the High Court of Kenya in 1964.
In consists judges to be determined later on. They are appointed by the president on the advice of JSC. The judges will then appoint the principal judge. Qualifications are the same as Court of appeal judges.
Functions of the High Court
The services of a judge can be terminated by the president on recommendation of the Judicial Service Commision. A tribunal determines the case. Reasons can be
Magistrate Courts
These are subordinate courts whose original and appellate jurisdiction is limited to a geographical area. They have power to deal with inheritance, legitimacy, administration of estates, land issues, inheritance, divorce etc.
The courts are also empowered to hold inquests upon the occurrence of a sudden death to determine whether its cause is suspicious or were natural.
Kadhis’ Courts
They are headed by the chief kadhi assisted by a number of Kadhis, who are appointed by the judicial service commission. The Kadhi must profess the Muslim religion and must possess knowledge of the Muslim law
They were set up to look in matters of inheritance, marriage, divorce and other personal law among the Muslims.
Appeals from these courts are heard in the high court and from the court of Appeal.
Laws used in the Kadhis courts come from the Koran Hadith, Islamic Scholarship and Islamic culture.
The Courts Martial
These are military courts convened by the chief of General and Commander of the Armed Forces.
They are criminal courts in their own rights and their powers are totally penal or disciplinary. They are meant to enforce and ensure discipline within the armed forces.
They try cases involving assisting an enemy, cowardice, desertion, insubordination, neglect of duty, malingering, drunkenness and absence without leave.
There are no appeals from the courts martial to the high court. In Kenya the courts martial were set up after the abortive coup of August 1982 when soldiers of the Kenya Air Force were to appear in court for toppling the government.
Objectives of sentencing a person who has broken the law
Magistrate courts hold inquests upon the occurrence of sudden death with the intention of finding out the exact cause of the death.
Judicial Service Commission
Members
Functions of the Judicial Service Commission
Challenges Facing the Judiciary
Reforms undertaken in the Judiciary
The rule of law
This means the exercise of government authority according to written and established laws and procedures.
According to Albert Venn Dicey, this means that all persons whether individual or in government are subject to the law.
It also means that all persons are equal before the law. The rule of law is important e.g. in Kenya all citizens and residents are governed by the same law regardless of their status, colour and religion. The rule of law requires that all be treated equally before the law.
Elements of the rule of law
This concept has four elements
Principles of the rule of law
However the rule of the law should
The concept of Natural Justice
It refers to the requirement that the people of the bodies that resolve disputes adhere to at least minimal standards of decision making.
The rule of law is governed by the principles of natural justice which ensures fairness in the exercise of administrative powers.
However, natural justice is based on the following rules/principles
The right to a fair hearing
This requires that an individual shall not be penalized by a decision affecting his or her right or legitimate expectations unless she has been given prior notice of the case against her/him, a fair opportunity to answer it and the opportunity to present his/her case. This involves
The right against bias
The adjudicator must be able to show that he has conducted a full inquiry into the circumstances involved before making his decision.
He should not have a personal interest in the outcome or be seen to be biased.
Natural Justice therefore ensures that proper procedure is followed to allow a fair hearing, one must be made aware of the matters that will affect them, be given reasonable time and the opportunity to present their case, and the ruling must be free from bias.
Therefore the concept presumes one to be innocent until proved guilty by the court of law. The police have no right to beat up a suspect. They should only arrest and produce the suspect in court for trial.
Get the latest Mwalimu National Sacco BOSA Loans Application Form {Free Download}, here. PDF Latest…
Here is the revised and latest Mwalimu National Sacco FOSA Salary Advance Application Form {Free…
Here is the latest Mwalimu National Sacco FOSA Instant Loan Application Form {Free Download}. Download…
The landscape of digital gambling has shifted toward high-octane mechanics that prioritize volatility and massive…
The Teachers Service Commission (TSC) has advertised 170 job vacancies across, covering senior, mid‑level, and…
Health Cabinet Secretary Aden Duale has ordered immediate changes to the Social Health Authority (SHA)…
