AGRICULTURE FORM 1

Introduction to Agriculture

    Definition of Agriculture     

• Agriculture is the science and art of cultivation of crops and rearing of livestock.
• As a science, it involves experimentation and application of scientific knowledge in such areas as;

• Soil analysis,
• Control of pests and diseases,
• Farm machinery and structures,
• Crop and livestock breeding.

• As an art, it involves the use of learned skills in;

• Tilling the land,
• Construction,
• Measurement,
• Harvesting of crops,
• Feeding and handling of livestock

Branches of Agriculture

Crop Farming (Arable Farming)

• The practice of growing crops on cultivated land.

      It is subdivided into:

• Field crops Cultivation:
• maize, beans, potatoes, coffee, tea, cotton to name but a few.
• Horticulture:
• It involves the growing of perishable crops which have high value.
• It is further subdivided into:
• Floriculture – the growing of flowers.
• Olericulture – the growing of vegetables.
• Pomoculture – the growing of fruits.

Download more free unlimited Agriculture Resources Here:

Free Agriculture notes, revision questions, KCSE past Papers, Exams, Marking Schemes, Topical revision materials, Syllabus and Many more

AGRICULTURE SCHEMES OF WORK FORM ONE TO FOUR: UPDATED

Agriculture notes free pdf download (Form 1-4)

AGRICULTURE REVISION QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS F1-4

AGRICULTURE FORM 4 NOTES: NEW

Agriculture KCSE Topical Questions and Answers Form 1-4 (All subjects)

FORM ONE FREE AGRICULTURE NOTES

AGRICULTURE KCSE REVISION BOOKLET: F1-4 QUESTIONS (EXAMS) AND ANSWERS

Livestock Farming

• This branch deals with the rearing of livestock for various products.

It is further subdivided into:

• Pastoralism: This is the rearing of mammalian livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, rabbits, pigs and camels.
• Fish Farming (Aquaculture): This is the practice of rearing fish and other aquatic organisms , in ponds.

• Bee Keeping (Apiculture): This involves the rearing of bees in structures known as beehives.
• Poultry Keeping: This is the keeping of domesticated birds.

Agricultural Economics

• It deals with the allocation of scarce resources (land, labour, capital and management) for agricultural production.

Agricultural Engineering

• This branch of agriculture deals with the use and maintenance of farm tools, machinery and structures.

Farming Systems

• A farming system is the organization of the various enterprises in a farm.

  It is determined by the following factors:

• Resources available (land, labour, capital and management).

• Skills of the farmer.
• Environmental factors such as climate, soil type and topography.
• Government policy.
• Farmer’s choice and preference.
• Enterprise requirement.
• Social-cultural factors.

The following are systems of farming:

Extensive System:

• It is a system where a large piece of land with low investment of resources per unit area is carried out.

Advantages

•  It is cheap.
•  Does not require high level of management.
• Requires less labour.

Disadvantages

• Low profit per unit area.
• Cannot be practiced where land is limited.
• Low output per unit area.
•  The land is under-utilized,

Intensive Farming:

• This system utilizes the factors of production to the maximum and involves high level of management.

Advantages

• Maximum utilization of the resources.
• Can be practiced even where land is a limiting factor.
• Results in high yields.

Disadvantages

• Labour intensive.
• High capital investment is required.
• Requires high level of management.
• Can lead to high loses in case of poor management.

Large Scale Farming

• Refers to the farming practice under large areas of land over 20 hectares.
• It is used mainly for commercial purposes.
• The system is highly mechanized.

Advantages

• Results in high yields.

• Due to economics of scale high profit is realized.

Disadvantages

• Lack of diversification may lead to total failure in case of unfavorable conditions.

• High level of management is required.
• Heavy capital investment.
• Requires skilled and qualified manpower.

Small Scale Farming

• Refers to farming carried out on a small area of land less than 5 hectares.
• Family or casual labour can be engaged during the peak periods.
• Most of the Kenyan farmers are small scale due to unavailability of farmland.

Advantages

• Requires low capital investment.
• Possible where land is a limiting factor.
• Does not require high management level unless under intensive system.

Disadvantages

• Uneconomical 10 mechanize due to small size.
• Low production.
• Provides limited employment.
• Labour intensive.
• Difficult to specialize.

Methods of Farming

• A method of farming is an established way of carrying out farming activities.
• The following are the common methods of farming:

Mixed Farming

• It is the practice of growing crops and keeping of livestock on the same land.
• Its common in high potential areas.

Advantages

• Mutual benefit between crops and livestock.
• Crops supply feed for animals while animals supply manure for crops.

• Acts as an insurance against total loss by the farmer.
• The farmer is assured of an income throughout the year.
• There is maximum utilization of the resources.
• Animals can be used in the farm activities particularly draught animals.
• Ensures proper utilization of labour and land throughout the year.

      Disadvantages

• High initial capital.
• Lack of specialization.
• Land can be a limiting factor if both enterprises are to be raised.
• Requires high level of management for both enterprises.

Nomadic-Pastoralism

• This is the practice of livestock rearing whereby animals are moved from one place to another in search of water and pastures.
• It is practiced in the arid and semi-arid areas where in most cases beef animals are kept.

     Nomadic pastoralism is gradually changing to ranching with the introduction of:

• Improved pasture species, improved livestock breeds and supplementary feeding.
• Efficient disease and parasite control measures.
• Improved infra-structure such as roads, water supply, cattle dipping facilities.
• Extension services.

     Advantages

• Serves as the backbone of beef industry in Kenya.

• Proper way of utilizing the arid and semi arid areas.

• Source of income to the pastoral communities.

 Disadvantages

• It encourages the spread of livestock pests and diseases due to communal watering points, grazing and dipping facilities.
• There is a tendency to increased soil erosion and land degradation.
• Source of conflicts and ethnic tension among the nomadic communities for the control of good pastures and water.
• Difficult to control breeding and breeding diseases.
• High rate of inbreeding leading to poor quality livestock.
• Low production of milk, meat, hides and skins due to wastage of energy in traveling from one place to another in search of pastures and water.
• High death rates as a result of walking for long distances.

Shifting Cultivation

• It is a traditional method of cultivating a piece of land until the soil is exhausted and crop yields decline.
• The land is abandoned and the farmer shifts to a new field as the previous land is left fallow to regain its fertility.

     Advantages

• Land is allowed to rest and regain its fertility.
• No build up of pests and diseases.
• Soil structure is restored.
• The cost of production is low since inorganic fertilizers and pesticides are not used.
• Crop produce are chemical free.

    Disadvantages

• Not practical where land is a limiting factor.
• Farm planning and acquisition of credits for land development is ‘not possible.
• It is a cumbersome method due to constant movement.
• Lack of soil conservation measures
• Not possible to grow perennial crops.
• Low output per unit area due to poor farming methods.
• Where fire is used to clear the land organic matter is destroyed.

Organic Farming

• It is a fanning method where crops are grown and livestock reared without the use of agro­chemicals.
• It is a method of farming which has been adopted to reduce the long term effect of the agro-chemicals on crops which may eventually end up in man and livestock.
• Agro-chemicals are also expensive thus organic farming reduces the cost of production. Organically produced goods fetch high market prices.

      Advantages

• Cheap and cost effective.

• Make use of the locally available materials

• Useful in improving the soil structures.
• No side effects from the crops and livestock products.
• No environmental pollution.

Agro-Forestry

• This is the practice of integrating trees and crops on the same piece of land.
• With land resources becoming more scarce, agroforestry is becoming more important.

Examples of common agroforestry trees and shrubs include:

• Cajanus cajan
• Grevillea robusta
• Sesbania sesban
• Calliandra calothyrsus
• Casuarina equisetifolia
• Leucaena leucocephala

Trees selected for agroforestry should have the following characteristics:

• Able to grow fast.
• Deep roots to minimize competition for nutrients.
•  Should be preferably leguminous.

     Advantages

• Trees reduce soil erosion in a given area.

• Leguminous trees add nitrates into the soil thus improving the soil fertility.
• Some trees can be used as livestock fodder to provide a high level of proteins.
• They are important sources of wood fuel and timber.
• There is maximum utilization of land.

Importance of Agriculture to the Economy of Kenya

• Provides food to the population to meet nutritional requirements and to enable man to engage in other activities of farming.

• Provides employment. This for example can be direct as a labourer in the farm, tea plucker or indirect for example, working in agricultural based industries.
• Source of raw materials for industries for example cotton lint for textile industry.
• Provides foreign exchange – through exporting agricultural produce.
• Provides market for industrial goods ­agriculture is a consumer of the finished goods from agro-based industries.
• Source of income – farmers as well as the government get revenue from the sale of agricultural produce and tax payment.

Factors Influencing Agriculture

Introduction

Agricultural production is influenced by external factors:

• Human factors
• Biotic factors
• Climatic factors
• Edaphic factors.

Human Factors

These are human characteristics which affect the way decisions are made and operations carried out.

• Level of education and technology:
• Skills
• Technological ad van cements .

• Human health/HIV-AIDS:

• These affect the strength, the vigour, vision and the determination

to work.

• HIV/AIDS is the biggest threat to human health today and has long

lasting effects on  agriculture, such as;

• Shortage of farm labour.
• Loss of family support.
• Low living standards leading to despondency and hopelessness.
• Increased criminal activities.
• More time spent by the Government and NGO’s in Carring for the sick.
• Economy;
• Stability in the countries’ economy affect agricultural production.

• Government Policy:

• These are governmental laws which have been enacted to protect farmers, land and livestock.

              They include:

• Food policy
• Policies on control of livestock parasites and diseases.
• Policies on marketing of both local and export products and others.
• Transport and communication:
• For agricultural goods to move from the farm to the consumers.

• Cultural practices and religious beliefs:

• These activities hinder important changes in a society that may bring agricultural development.

• Market forces:

• Demand and supply forces which affect prices of commodities in a free market.

Biotic Factors

These are living organisms which affect agricultural production.

• Pests – Destructive organisms which destroy crops.
• Parasites – These are invertebrates which live in or on other living organisms.
• Decomposers – Organisms which act on plants and animal tissues to form
• Pathogens – Micro-organisms which cause diseases.
• Predators – Animals that kill and feed on other animals.
• Pollinators – They transfer pollen grains from the stamens to the pistil of a flower.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria -They are micro-organisms which convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates ready for use by the plants.

Climatic Factors(weather elements).

• Rainfall,
• Temperature,
• Wind,
• Relative humidity
•  Light.

Weather – Atmospheric conditions of a place at a given time period.

Climate – weather conditions of a place observed and recorded for a period of 30-40 years.

Rainfall

Supplies Water:

• Which is necessary for the life process in plants and animals.

• Which makes the plant turgid hence provides support.
• Acts as a solvent for plant nutrients.
• Cools the plant during transpiration.
• Which is used as a raw material in photosynthesis.

   When plants lack enough water they respond in different ways as follows:

• By closing the stomata to restrict water loss.
• Hastens maturity.
• Some will roll their leaves.

  Other plants have developed permanent adaptation to water stress such as:

• Growing needle like leaves.
• Develop fleshy leaves for water storage.
• Develop long roots.

• Wilting and death in extreme conditions.

Important Aspects of Rainfall:

• Rainfall reliability;
• This is the dependency on the timing of the onset of the rains.

• Amount of rainfall;

• Quantity of rain that falls in a given area within a given year.

• Rainfall distribution ;

• The number of wet months in a year.

• Rainfall intensity;

• Amount of rainfall that falls in an area within a period of 1 hour.

Temperature

• This is the degree of hotness or coldness of a place measured in degrees Celsius.
• Cardinal range of temperature ­ is the temperature required by plant to grow and thrive well.
• Optimum range of temperatures – the best temperature for the best performance of plants.

Effects of Temperatures on Crop Production:

Low temperatures:

• Slow the growth rate of crops due to slowed photosynthesis and respiration.
• High incidences of disease infection.
• Improves quality of crops such as tea and pyrethrum.

High Temperatures

• Increase evaporation rate leading to
• Wilting.
• Hastens the maturity of crops.
• Increase disease and pest infection.
• Improves quality of crops such as pineapples, oranges and pawpaws.

Wind

Wind is moving air.

Good effects of wind include:

• Seed dispersal

• Cooling of land
• Pollination in crops
• Brings rain bearing clouds

Negative effects of wind:

• Increases the rate of evaporation of water.

• Causes lodging of cereals and distorts perennial crops.
• Increases evapo-transpiration.
• Spreads diseases and pests.
• Destroys farm structures.

Relative humidity

• The amount of water vapour in the air

• Affects the rate of evapo-transpiration.
• Forms dew which supplies soil with moisture under dry conditions.
• High humidity induce rooting in cuttings.
• Increases disease multiplication and spread.

Light

• Provide radiant energy harnessed by green plant for photosynthesis.

Important aspects of light:

• Light intensity ;

• The strength with which light is harnessed by chlorophyll for photosynthesis.

• Light duration;

• The period during which light is available to plants per day.
• Plant response to light duration is known as
• Short-day plants – require less than 12 hours of daylight to flower and
• Long-day plants – require more than 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed.
• Day-neutral plants require 12 hours of daylight to flower and seed.

• Light wavelength;

• This is the distance between two – successive crests of a wavelength.
• It dictates the difference between natural and artificial light.
• Chlorophyll absorbs certain wavelengths of light.

Edaphic Factors Influencing Agriculture

• These are soil factors.
• Soil is the natural material that covers the surface of the earth,
• Made of weathered rock particles and decomposed animal and plant tissues, and on which plants grow.

Importance of Soil

• Provides anchorage to the plants by holding their roots firmly.
• Provides plants with mineral salts/ nutrients which are necessary for their growth.

• Provide the plants with water.
• Contains oxygen necessary for respiration of the plants and soil micro-organisms.

Soil Formation:

• Soil is formed through weathering process.
• Weathering is the breakdown and alteration of the parent rock near the surface of the earth to a stable substance.

• Weathering process is a combination of disintegration (breakdown) and synthesis (build up) process.
• Weathering process is continuous.

Types of Weathering

• Physical weathering
• Chemical weathering
• Biological weathering

Agents of Weathering

 Physical Agents of Weathering

• Include wind, water, moving ice and temperature.

• Wind – carry materials which hit against each other to break into fragments.
• Water – intensity of rainfall causes breakdown of rock.
• Moving ice – has grinding effects which tear off rock particles.

• Extreme temperature cause rocks to expand and contract suddenly peeling off their surface.

Chemical Weathering

• Affects the chemical composition and structure of the rock.

• Involves processes such as ;

• Hydrolysis,
• Hydration,
• Carbonation

• Hydration;

• The process by which soluble minerals in the rocks absorb water and expand weakening the rock thus leading to disintegration.

• Hydrolysis;

• The process whereby water dissolves soluble minerals in the rock weakening it.

• Oxidation;

• The reaction of rock minerals with oxygen to form oxides which break easily.

• Carbonation;

• The process whereby carbonic acids formed when rain water dissolves carbon dioxide,
• It reacts with calcium carbonates in limestone causing it to disintegrate.

Biological Weathering

This involves the action of living organisms, plants and animals on the rocks.

• Burrowing animals, for example, termites and moles bring soil particles to the surface exposing them to other agents of weathering.

• Big animals like, elephants, buffaloes, camels and cattle exert a lot of pressure on the rocks as they step on them due to their heavy weights causing the rocks to disintegrate.

• Earthworms take part in the decomposition of plant matter with the soil particles.

• Man’s activities like, mining and quarrying expose rocks to the surface during excavation. These activities breakdown large rocks into smaller rock particles.

• Plant roots force their way through the cracks in the rocks thus widening and splitting them.

• Humic acids formed when plant tissues decompose react with the rocks weakening them further.

• Plant remains-decompose adding humus into the soil.

Factors influencing soil formation

• Climate- (rainfall, temperature and wind)

• Biotic factors – living organisms.

• Parent material– Nature and properties of the original rock from which the soil is formed.

• Time – length of time during which the soil forming processes have taken

• Topography – influences the movement of disintegrated materials.

• It is the vertical arrangement of different layers of soil from the ground surface to the bedrock.

• These layers are also referred to as horizons.

• The layers show differences in their contents and physical properties such as colour, texture and structure.

• The layers include: organic matter region, top soil, sub-soil, weathered rocks and parent material.

Organic Matter Region

• First layer of the soil found on the surface.
• Made up of leaves and other plant remains at various stages of decomposition.

• Some soil organisms may also be found here.

Top Soil

• Has a dark colour due to the presence of humus.
• Is rich in plant nutrients and well aerated.

• It is a zone of maximum leaching (zone of eluviations)

Sub-Soil

• It is compact and less aerated.

• It is a zone of accumulation of leached material (zone of aluviation) from the top layers.

• Deep rooted crops have their roots growing up to this region.
• Hard pans normally form in this layer

Weathered Rocks

• It is also called substratum.
• Rocks at various stages of disintegration are found in this zone.
• Most of the materials found in this zone originate from the parent rock.

Parent Rock

• It exists as a solid mass which is un-weathered.
• It is the source of the inorganic composition of the soil.
• The water table is on the surface of this rock.

Soils Formed in Situ and Soils Deposited

• Soil formed in the same place and remains there is said to be in situ.
• However, soil can be formed due to deposition of soil particles carried from its original site of formation to another area which is usually in the lower areas of slopes.
• Such soils are said to have been formed through deposition.

Soil Depth

• This is the distance between top soil layer and the bottom soil layer in a profile.

• It dictates root penetration and growth
• Deep soils are more suitable for crop growth since they contain more nutrients.
• Have a larger surface are for root expansion.

• Deep soils facilitate good drainage and aeration.

Soil Constituents

• Organic Matter – Dead and decaying plants and animal remains
• Living Organisms – Soil organisms and plant roots.
• Micro-organisms (bacteria, protozoa and fungi)
• Invertebrates -termites,
• Earthworms and molluscs.
• Higher animals – rodents and others.

• Inorganic or Mineral Matter

• Formed from the parent materials.
• Supply plant nutrients
• Form the skeleton and framework of the soil.

• Air

• Found in the pore spaces of the soil.
• Used for root and organism respiration
• Used for germination of seeds.
• Helps in decomposition of organic matter.
• Regulates soil temperature.
• Regulates the movement of water through capillary action.

• Water

• Dissolves mineral salts
• Maintain turgidity in plants.
• Used for germination of seeds
• Used by soil organisms.
• Regulate soil temperature
• Dictates the amount of air in the soil.

        Water in the soil exists in three forms namely:

• Superfluous/Gravitational Water

• Found in the large spaces (macro-pores) in the soil particles.
• Held by gravitation forces.
• When the pores are saturated, the soil is said to be waterlogged.
• It moves and may cause leaching.

• Hygroscopic Water

• Water found in thin films on the soil particles.
• Held by strong adhesive forces between water and soil particles.
• Does not move and hence not available for plant use.

• Capillary Water

• Occupy micro-pores in the soil particles.
• Held by cohesive forces between water molecules.
• Moves through capillary action
• Available to plants for use.

Soil Structure

• This is the arrangement of soil particles in a soil horizon.
• Types of Soil Structure –

• Single-grained
• Crumby
• Granular
• Prismatic
• Columnar
• Platy
• Blocky

Importance of Soil Structure on Crop Production

Soil Structure Influences

• Soil aeration

• Soil drainage and water holding capacity.
• Plants root penetrability and anchorage.
• Microbial activities in the soil.
• Circulation of gases in the soil.

Farming practices which improve the soil structure are:

• Application of inorganic manure into the soil.
• Tilling the land at the right moisture content.
• Crop rotation.
• Minimum tillage.
• Cover cropping.

Soil Texture

• It refers to the relative proportion of the various sizes of the mineral particles of soil.

    Importance of Soil Texture on Crop Production;

• Influences soil fertility
• Affects the organic matter content
• Influences the drainage of the soil.
• Influences soil aeration.
• Influences water holding capacity.
• Influences the capillarity or movement of water in the soil.

Soil Textural Classes

 Sandy Soils

• Made up largely of sand particles.
• Have large pore spaces hence poor in water retention.
• Easy to till (light soils).
• Freely draining.
• Low fertility due to leaching of minerals.
• Easily erodible.

 Clayey Soils

• Made up largely of clayey particles.
• Have small pore spaces hence good in moisture retention.
• Difficult to till (heavy soils).
• Poorly ‘drained.
• Expand when wet, crack when dry.
• High capillary.
• Rich in plant nutrients.

Loam Soils

• About equal amounts of sand and clay.
• Moderately good in both moisture and air retention.
• Fertile soils.

Soil Colour

• This depends on the, mineral composition of the parent rock and the organic matter content.

• Soils containing a lot of iron are brownish, yellowing and reddish in colour.
• Soils with a lot of silica are white.

• Soils with a lot of humus are dark or grey.

Soil pH

• This refers to the acidity or alkalinity of the soil solution/the concentration of hydrogen ions in the soil solution.

• Soil pH is determined by the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) or the hydroxyl ions (OH) in the soil solution.
• A pH of less than 7 means that the soil is acidic.
• A pH of more than 7 means that the soil is alkaline.
• As the hydroxyl ions (OH) in the soil increase the soil becomes more alkaline.

Influence of Soil pH Crop Growth

• It determines the type of crop to be grown in a particular area.
• Most crops are affected by either very acidic or very basic soil pH.
• Soil pH affects the choice of fertilizers and the availability of nutrients to crops.
• At low pH the concentration of available iron and aluminium in the soil solution may increase to toxic levels, which is harmful to plants.
• Very acidic or low pH inhibit the activity of soil micro-organisms.

Farm Tools and Equipment

Introduction

• Farm tools and equipment perform specific jobs in the farm.
• They make work easier and more efficient.
• They can be classified according to their uses as follows:

Garden Tools and Equipment

Livestock Production Tools and Equipment

Workshop Tools and Equipment

Plumbing and Masonry Tools

Care and Maintenance of Tools and Equipment

Reasons for Maintenance

• To increase durability.
• To increase efficiency.
• Reduce costs of replacement.
• For safety of the user/avoid accidents.
• Avoid damage to the tool.

Methods

• Use tools for the right work.
• Proper handling when using tools or equipment.
• Clean and oil tools after work.
• Keep tools in there right place.
• Replace and repair worn-out parts
• Sharpen cutting or digging edges
• Grease moving parts to reduce friction
• Use safety devices in the workshop to reduce accidents and breakages

CROP PRODUCTION 1

(Land Preparation)

Introduction

• A piece of land which is prepared is known as seedbed.
• A seedbed is a piece of land that is prepared ready to receive planting materials.

Seedbed Preparation

Reasons for Seedbed Preparation;

• To enable water to infiltrate.
• To kill weeds

• To improve soil aeration.
• To destroy pests and diseases.

• To incorporate organic matter in the soil.

• For easy planting.
• To facilitate root penetration.

Operations in Land Preparation

Land Clearing

• Clearing of land is necessary when:
• Opening up a virgin land.

• A stalk growing crop was previously plan

• There is long interval between primary and secondary cultivation.
• Land was left fallow for a long time.

Procedure

• Tree felling and removal of stumps and roots.
• Burning
• Slashing
• Use of chemicals.

     Note: Burning should be avoided where possible since it;

• Leads to loss of organic matter,
• Kills soil organisms
• Destroys soil structure and plant nutrients.

Primary Cultivation

• This is the initial breaking of land.
• It is done early before the onset of the rains to:

• Give time for soil organisms to act on organic matter.
• Allow gaseous exchange to take place, thus carbon dioxide diffuses out of the soil while oxygen enters into the soil.
• Allow other operations to take place in time.

Reasons for primary cultivation:

• Remove weeds.
• Burry organic matter.
• Open up soil for infiltration of water and air.
• Expose pests and disease causing organisms.
• Soften the soil for easy planting.

Operations in primary cultivation

• Hand digging ;

     Use of hand tools ;

• Jembes,
• Mattocks,
• Fork-jembes.

• Mechanical cultivation ;

   Use of mouldboard ploughs;

• Disc ploughs,
• Chisel ploughs,
• Subsoilers
• Rippers.

• Use of Ox–Ploughs ;

    Which can be drawn by;

• Oxen,
• Donkeys,
• Camels

Depth of Cultivation

  Depends on:

• The type of crop to be planted/size of seed.
• The implements available.
• The type of soil.

Choice of Implement

   Determined by:

• The condition of land.
• The type of tilth required/type of crop.
• Depth of cultivation.

Secondary Tillage

• These are refinement practices on the seedbed that follow primary cultivation.
• It is also known as harrowing.

Reasons for secondary Tillage:

• To remove the germinating weeds.

• To break soil clods to produce required tilth.

• To level the seedbed for uniform planting.
• To incorporate organic matter/manure into the soil.

Factors determining number of secondary cultivation:

• Soil moisture content.
• Size of the planting materials.
• Condition of the soil after primary cultivation.
• Slope of the land.

Tertiary Operations:

• Ridging ;
• The process of digging soil on a continuous line and heaping on one side to produce a furrow and a bund (ridge).
• It is important for root crops, to allow root expansion and for soil and water conservation.
• Rolling:
• It is the compaction of the soil to produce a firm surface which increases seed-soil contact and prevents wind erosion.

• Levelling;

• Production of an even, uniform surface which promotes uniform planting.

Subsoiling:

• This is deep cultivation into the subsoil layer to break up any hardpan which might have developed.

It is done for the following reasons:–

• To facilitate drainage.
• Bring up leached nutrients to the surface.
• Increase aeration of the soil.
• To improve root penetration.
• The implements used include chisel plough and subsoilers.

Minimum Tillage:

• This is the application of a combination of farming practices with the aim of reducing the disturbance of the soil.

Examples of which include:

• Use of herbicides.
• Mulching and cover-cropping.
• Timely operations to prevent weed infestation.
• Strip cultivation.
• Uprooting and slashing of weeds.

Reasons for Minimum Tillage

• To reduce cost of cultivation.
• To control soil erosion.
• To preserve soil moisture.
• To prevent root exposure and damage.
• To reconstruct destroyed soil structure.

Water Supply, Irrigation and Drainage

Introduction

• Water is a very important natural resource.
• It is necessary for both crops and livest

Uses of water in the farm;

• Cleaning equipment.
• Irrigation in dry areas.
• Processing farm produce, for example, co
• Drinking by livestock and m
• Mixing agro-chemicals such as acaricide, fungicides and herbicides.
• Providing power in water mills to grind grain crop
• Cooling engines.
• Construction work.

Sources of Water in the Farm

Three major sources of water in the farm:

• Surface water:

 Includes water from;

• Rivers,
• Streams
• Dams.
• Ground water:

Includes water from;

• Springs,
• Wells
• Borehole
• Rain water:

This is water tapped in various ways such as;

• Rooftops
• Rock surface, when it is raining and stored in various ways.

Collection and Storage of Water

• Dams:
• These are structures constructed across rivers and channel
• They collect and store water for use during the dry season.
• Weirs:
• These are structures constructed across rivers to raise the water level for easy pump
• Unlike in the dams water flows over the barrier created across the river.
• Water Tanks:
• These are structures made of concrete, stone, metal sheets and plastics.
• They store water from rain or that which has been pumped from other sources.
• Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from dust.

Pumps and Pumping of Water

• Pumping is the lifting of water from one point to another by use of mechanical force.
• Water is pumped from the various sources and then conveyed to where it is required for use or storage.

       Types of Water Pumps

Used to lift water from its source.

• Centrifugal pumps
• Piston or reciprocating pumps
• Semi-rotary pumps and
• Hydram

Conveyance of Water

• This is the process of moving water from one point, usually the source or point of storage to where it will be used or stored.
• Piping;
  • This is where water is moved through pipes.

The common types of pipes include:

• Metal pipes
• Plastic pipes
• Hose pipes
  • Use of Containers:
    • In this case water is drawn and put in containers .
    • drums, jerry cans, pots, gourds, tanks and buckets .
    • Which are carried by animals, bicycles, human beings and vehic

• Use of Canals:

• In this case water is conveyed from a high point to a lower one along a gradual slope to avoid soil erosion.
• Water conveyed through this way is mostly used for irrigation and livestock.

Water Treatment

• Raw water contains impurities which may be dissolved, floating or suspended in water.

These impurities are grouped into three categories, namely:

• Physical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by colour, taste and smell.
• Chemical impurities: these are dissolved impurities detected by use of chemical analysis.

• Biological impurities: these are microorganisms in water such as bacteria, viruses and algae.

Importance of Treating Water

• To kill disease causing microorganisms such as cholera and typhoid bacteria that thrive in dirty water.

• To remove chemical impurities such as excess fluoride which may be harmful to human beings.
• To remove smells and bad taste.
• To remove sediments of solid particles such as soil, sand and sticks.

Methods of Treating Water

• Aeration: this is the removal of smell and odour from water by fine spraying or bubbling of air.
• Sedimentation: this is where water is put in large containers so that solid particles such as sand, metal and others can settle at the bottom.

• Filtration: this is passing water through fine granular materials to remove solid particles and biological substances.
• Coagulation: addition of chemicals which precipitate impurities and help in softening of hard water.

• Chlorination: Sterilization to destroy disease causing organisms.

Irrigation

• It is the artificial application of water to crops in dry areas or where water is not enough.
• It is one of the methods of land reclamation in case of arid and semi arid areas.

Factors to Consider in Identifying and Assessing the Potential of Land for Irrigation Development

• Topography of the land
• Soil type
• Type of crop to be grown
• Water availability

• Human factors such as skill, capital availability and economic activities.

Types of Irrigation

• Surface irrigation:
• This includes flood irrigation and basin irrigation.
• It is used in flat areas.
• The problem with this method is loss of water through seepage.
• It also increases soil salinity.
• Sub-surface Irrigation:
• This involves the use of porous pipes or perforated pipes.
• It is used in slopy areas and where water is inadequate.
• Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation:
• It is used in any area which is not steep.
• Drip or Trickle Irrigation:
• It is used where water is little and in relatively sloppy and flat areas.

Drainage

• This is a method of removing excess water or lowering the water table from a marshy water-logged land.
• It is also a method of land reclamation.

      Importance of Drainage as a Method of Land Reclamation

• To increase soil aeration.
• To raise soil temperature.
• To increase microbial activities in the soil.
• To reduce toxic substances from the soil.
• To increase soil volume for exploitation by plant roots.

     Methods of Drainage

• Use of open ditches.
• Use of underground drain pipes.
• French drains.
• Cambered beds.
• Pumping out water from the soil.
• Planting tree species which absorb a lot of water for example eucalyptus.

Water Pollution

• This is the process by which harmful substances get into the water.
• The harmful substance is referred to as a pollutant.

Agricultural practices which pollute water include:

• Use of inorganic fertilizers.
• Use of pesticides.
• Poor cultivation practices such as over cultivation, cultivating along the river banks.
• Overgrazing which leads to erosion of soil thus causing siltation in water sources.

Methods of Preventing Water Pollution

• Soil conservation measures which minimize soil losses through erosi
• Fencing off the water sour

• Adopting organic farming practices for example controlling pests and weed using non-chemical techniques.
• Planting grass along river banks to minimize siltation in rivers.

• Proper disposal of empty chemical containers.

Soil Fertility I

(Organic Manures)

Introduction

• Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in their proper proportions.

Characteristics of a Fertile Soil

• Good depth – Good soils give roots greater volume to obtain plant nutrients and provide strong anchorage.
• Good aeration – for the respiration of plant roots and use by soil organisms.
• Good water holding capacity – ensures provision of adequate water for plant growth.
• Proper drainage – ensures provision of adequate air for plant growth.
• Correct soil pH – different crops have different soil pH requirements.
• Adequate nutrients supply – it should supply the required nutrients in the correct amounts and in a form available to plants.
• Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases.

How soil loses fertility

• Leaching: vertical movement of dissolved minerals from the top to the lower horizons of the soil profile.
• Soil erosion – The removal and carrying away of the top fertile soil from one place to another.
• Monocropping – This is the practice of growing one type of crop on a piece’ of a land over a long time.
• Continuous cropping – crops take away a lot of nutrients from the soil which are never returned.
• Growing crops continuously without giving the soil time to rest makes the soil infertile.
• Change in soil pH – changes in soil pH affect the activity of soil microorganisms as well as the availability of soil nutrients.
• Burning of vegetation – burning of vegetation cover destroys organic matter. It also exposes the soil to the agents of soil erosion.
• Accumulation of salts – soils with a lot of salts are said to be saline. State of having too much salt in the soil is referred to as soil salinity.
• Salts accumulation cause water deficiency in plants. It may also lead to change in soil pH.

Maintenance of Soil Fertility

Soil fertility is maintained through the following methods:

• Control of Soil Erosion ;
• Terracing,
• Contour cultivation,
• Strip cropping,
• Cut off drains
• Planting cover crops.
• Crop Rotation ;
• Practice of growing different crops on the same field in different seasons in an orderly sequence.
• Control of Soil pH :
• Application of liming materials such as limestone, quicklime, magnesium carbonate and slaked lime if the soil is acidic.

• Application of acidic fertilizers if the soil is alkaline.
• Application of manures.

• Proper drainage;

       Done through:

• Breaking hard pan.
• Construction of water channels.
• Growing crops on cambered bed
• Pumping out water from the soil.

• Weed control:

• Use of herbicides.
• Slashing
• Mulching
• Use of proper farming practices such as early planting, correct spacing and cover crops.

• Intercropping –

• Farming practice where different crops species are grown together in the field.

• Minimum Tillage;

• Use of herbicides.
• Uprooting of weeds.
• Slashing weeds
• Mulching
• Strip cultivation.

• Use of Inorganic Fertilizer ;

• Chemical compounds manufactured to apply specific plant nutrients for example calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN).

• Use of Manure;

• Well decomposed manures release nutrients into the soil and increase its water holding capacity.

Organic Manures

• Manures are derived from plants and animal remains.
• They supply organic matter to the soil which after decomposition releases plant nutrients.

• The end product of this decomposition is known as humus.
• It influences soil chemical properties and soil temperature.
• Manures supply a wide range of essential plant nutrients.

Importance of Organic Matter in the Soil

• Increases the soil water holding capacity of the soil.
• Improves soil fertility by releasing a wide range of nutrients into the soil.
• Provides food and shelter for soil micro-organisms.
• Improves the soil structure.
• Buffers soil pH/moderates soil pH.
• Reduces the toxicity of plant poisons in the soil.
• Moderates soil temperature by its dark colour.

Limitations in the Use of Manure

• They are bulky – low nutritive value per unit volume.
• Laborious in application and transport.
• They spread diseases, pests and weeds.
• Loss of nutrients if poorly stored.

• If not fully decomposed crops may not benefit from them.

Types of Organic Manures

• Green manure.

• Farm yard manure.
• Compost manure

Green Manure

• Made from green plants which are grown for the purpose of incorporating into the soil.

  Characteristics of plants used for preparation for green manure:

• Have fast growth rates.
• Have high nitrogen content.
• Capable of rotting quickly.
• Capable of growing in poor conditions.

Preparation of Green Manure

• Plant the green manure crop in the field.
• Allow the crop to grow up to flowering stage.
• Incorporate it into the soil through ploughing.
• Allow the crop to decompose for two weeks.

• Prepare the field for planting the major crop.

Reasons why green manure is not commonly used/limitations:

• Most of the plants used as green manure are food crops.
• Green manure crops may use most of the soil moisture.

• Most of the nutrients are used up by soil micro-organisms in the process of decomposing the green manure.
• Planting of the major crop is delayed.

Farm Yard Manure (FYM)

• Is a mixture of animal waste and crop residues used as beddings in animal houses.

Factors that Determine the Quality of FYM

• The types of the animals used.
• Types of food eaten
• Types of litter used.
• Method of storage.
• Age of farmyard manure.
• Age of the animals used.

Preparation of FYM

• Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals.
• Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings.
• Animals mix them through trampling.
• The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under shed to decompose.
• After sometime, the materials decompose and FYM is formed.
• It can then be used in the farm

Compost Manure

• Is manure prepared from heaped (composted) organic materials.

Factors to consider in selecting site for making compost manure:

• A well drained place.
• Direction of the prevailing wind.
• Size of the farm.
• Accessibility.

Preparation of Compost Manure

Two methods:

• Four heaps method
• Indore Method (Pit Method)

Indore Method (Pit Method)

Procedure ;

• Select a sheltered place with a shade and near the field.
• Dig a pit with the dimension 1.2m x 1.2m x 1.2m.
• Place the materials in the following order:

• Hedge cuttings or maize stalks to a depth of 30cm as a foundation
• A layer of grass, green weeds or leaves and kitchen wastes to 30cm.
• A well rotten manure/poultry droppings.
• Wood ash and phosphatic fertilizers.
• A layer of topsoil to introduce micro­organism for the decomposition of organic remains.
• Note: Some water should be sprinkled to the materials to initiate the decomposition   process and regulate temperatures.

Four heaps method:

Procedure

• Clear the site.
• Level the site
• Four posts 2m high are fixed 1.2m apart from four corners of the heap.
• Fix wood planks on the sides.
• Materials are placed in two heaps as in the pit method,
• The two heaps make up heap 1.
• After 3-4 weeks, the decomposed material from heap 1 is transferred to heap II.
• After another 3 – 4 weeks the material is transferred to heap III.
• After 3-4 weeks it is ready for use in the farm.

Indicators of well decomposed manure

• Absence of bad odour.
• Materials are lighter.
• Manure is brown in colour.

Advantages of Compost Manure

• One does not have to own livestock in order to prepare it.
• A lot of manure can be produced within a short time.
• A variety of materials can be used in its preparation.
• Uses locally available materials thus cheaper than the artificial fertilizers.
• Improves the soil structure.

Limitations of Compost Manure

• It releases nutrients slowly into the soil.
• Large quantities of compost manure are required to supply enough plant nutrients.
• Its preparation is labour intensive.
• It may induce soil-borne pests and diseases.

Livestock Production:

(Common Breeds)

Introduction

• The term livestock is used to refer to all domesticated animals.
• These animals include cattle, sheep, goats, poultry, pigs, rabbits, camels, bees, fish and donkeys.

The importance of keeping livestock:

• Source of food.
• Source of income.
• Cultural values.
• Source of animal power.

• Provision of raw materials for industries.
• Farmyard manure from the animals is used in maintaining soil fertility.

• Cattle dung is used in the production of biogas.

Cattle Breeds

• Cattle can be classified into two groups based on their origin.

     These are;

• Indigenous cattle.
• Exotic cattle.

Indigenous Cattle

• Zebus –

They are small in size and with a distinct hump and  include:

• Nandi,
• Bukedi
• Maasai cattle.
• The Borana
• These are the cattle kept in the Northern parts of Kenya.
• They are larger than the Zebus.

• Indigenous cattle are hardy hence able to tolerate the harsh environmental conditions in the tropics.
• They are the major suppliers of beef in Kenya.

Exotic Cattle  

• Foreign cattle from the temperate regions.

• They have distinct breed characteristics and are classified into various breeds.

General characteristics:

• They have no humps.
• They have low tolerance to high temperatures hence popular in cool climates of the Kenya highlands ..
• They are highly susceptible to tropical diseases.
• They have fast growth rates leading to early maturity.
• They are good producers of both meat and milk.
• They cannot walk for long distances.
• They have short calving intervals of one calf per year if well managed.

Exotic cattle breeds fall under the following groups:

• Dairy cattle breeds.
• Beef cattle breeds.
• Dual purpose breeds.

Dairy Cattle Breeds

• They include;
• Friesian,
• Ayrshire,
• Guernsey

Characteristics of Dairy Cattle

• Wedge or triangular in shape.
• Large stomach.
• Docile with mild temperament.
• Large, well suspended udders and teats.
• Lean bodies.
• Lean and smooth neck.
• Large and long mammary milk wells and veins.
• Cylindrical; uniform and well spaced teats.
• Wide and well set hindquarters to accommodate the udder.

Friesian-Holstein (largest of all dairy breeds)

• Origin: Holland
• Colour: Black and white

• Size: Cow weighs 550-680kgs Bull weighs 950 kg.

• Highest milk producers of all dairy breeds about 9150 kg per lactation but with least butterfat content; 3.5%

Ayrshire

• Origin: Scotland
• Colour: White with brown markings.
• Size: Cow weighs 360-590kgs Bulls weighs 500-720kg.

    Conformation:

• Straight top lines, horns are long and face upwards.
• Milk production is second to Friesian about 61OOkg per lactation with butter content of about 4%.

Guernsey

• Origin: Guernsey Island off the coast of France.
• Colour: Yellowish brown to red with white legs, switch and girth ..
• Size: Bulls 540-770kg. Cow weighs 450- 500kgs

     Conformation:

• Udders are less symmetrical.
• Average milk production is about 5185kg per lactation with a butterfat content of 4.5% hence the yellow colour of milk.

Jersey (smallest of all the dairy breeds)

• Origin: England
• Colour: Yellow brown with black muzzle and switch.
• Size: Bulls weigh 540-700kg. Cow weighs 350-450kgs

     Conformation:

• Dished forehead, have straight top-line and level rumps with sharp w
• Have protruding black eyes.
• Average milk production 1270kg per lactation of butterfat content 5%.
• They tolerate high temperatures.

Beef Cattle

Examples:

• Aberdeen Angus,
• Hereford,
• Shorthorns,
• Galloway,
• American Brahman,
• charolais
• Santa Getrudis.

Characteristics of Beef Cattle

• Blocky or square conformation.
• Have thick muscles or are well fleshed.
• Early maturing.
• Deep chest and girth and short legs.
• Straight top and lower lines.

AberdeenAngus

• Origin: North East Scotland.
• Colour: Black

• Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep; It is polled.

    Size:

• Mature bulls weigh 900kg.
• Mature cows weigh 840kgs.
•  It is found in Timau area of Kenya

Hereford

• Origin: Engla
• Colour: Deep red and white-faced.

• Size: Average weight of bulls is 1000kg.
• Cows weigh 840kgs.
• It is found in areas such as Naivasha.

Shorthorn

• Origin: England.
• Has easy fleshing ability
• Colour: Red, Roan or white
• Shape: Cylindrical, compact and deep.
• It is polled.

      Size:

• Bulls weigh 700-900kg,
• cows weigh 545-630kgs.

Galloway

• Origin: Scotland.
• Colour: Black
• Kept in the highland areas like Molo in Kenya.

Charolais

• Origin: France.
• Colour: Creamy white.
• Size: Bulls weigh 1200kg, cows weigh 1000kgs.
• It is found in ranches in Laikipia District.

Dual Purpose Breeds

    Examples: Sahiwal, Red Poll and Simmental.

Sahiwal

• Origin: India and Pakistan ..

• Colour: reddish brown.

• Size: Bulls weigh 650kg,  and cows 400kg.
• Milk production averages 2700-3000 per lactation with a butter fat content of 3.7%.
• It has a pendulous udders which does not let down milk easily.
• It is therefore said to be a difficult milker.
• It is kept in semi-arid areas such as Naivasha.

    Red Poll

• Origin: England.
• Colour: Deep red with a white nose.
• Conformation: Polled-deep girth and short legs.
• Kept in semi–arid areas such as Nakuru, Mogotio.

  Simmental

• Origin:

• Colour: Light red and white patches on the head.

Conformation:

• It has broad and straight back, with well-sprung ribs and deep girth.
• It is well fleshed at rear quarters, well suspended udders and large teats.

Sheep Breeds:

Purpose of Keeping Sheep;

• Meat (mutton).
• Wool production.

Exotic Sheep

• Wool breeds -for example merino.
• Dual purpose- for example Corriedale, Romney marsh.
• Mutton breeds -for example Hampshire Down, Dorpers.

Merino

• Origin: Spain

Characteristics:

• It has white face and its lips and nostrils are pink in colour.
• Rams have horns which are spiral in shape.
• It is susceptible to foot rot, worm and respiratory diseases.

Corriedale

• Origin: New Zealand.
• Size: Rams 85 – 90kg. Ewes 60– 85 kg
• This is a dual-purpose breed with white open face and white spots on the legs.
• It is hornless and hardy.

Romney Marsh

• Origin: England.
• Size: Rams 100 – 115kg.
• Ewes 84- 100 kg
• It is a dual-purpose breed which s hornless with wide poll and black nostrils and lips.
• It is average in prolificacy.
• It is resistant to foot rot diseases and worm infestation.

Hampshire Down

• Origin: England.
• Size: Rams 125kg.
• Ewes 80-100 kg
• It is a mutton breed which is early maturing, hardy and prolific.
• Fleece is of poor quality because of the black fibres.
• Lambing percentage is 125-140.

Dorper

• Is a crossbreed of Dorset horn and black head Persian sheep.
•  It is mutton breed.

Dorset Horn

• Dual purpose breed of sheep.
• Indigenous Breeds of Sheep
• Their bodies are covered with hair.
• Their classification is based on their tails and their names vary according to different tribes.

Characteristics;

• Thin tailed sheep found in West Africa.
• Fat tailed such as Maasai sheep.
• Fat rumped sheep.

Maasai Sheep

• Found in South Western Kenya and Northern Tanzania.
• Size: Ram 38kg,
• Ewe 20-30kg.
• Colour: Red and brown.
• These are early maturing with long legs and small pointed horns.

Black Head Persian Sheep

• Origin: South Africa
• Colour: White with black head and neck.
• It is polled with a big dewlap, fat rump and a curved tail..

Goats

Goats well adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions because of the following characteristics:

• They feed on a wide range of vegetation.

• They require very little amount of water.
• They are tolerant to high temperatures.
• They are fairly resistant to diseases.
• They can walk long distances without losing weight.

Indigenous  Goat Breeds

• Galla (white in colour). Adult female can weigh 25kg.
• Somali (Boran): Found in Northern Kenya (white in colour).
• Turkana/Samburu: (Long hair and bearded.
• Mubende: (Black) (40-45kg). These are small and hardy and are kept for meat and milked by the pastoralists.

Exotic Breeds

Boer goat

• Origin: South Africa
• Colour: White
• Has long ears and long hair on their bodies.

Anglo-Nubian

• Origin: North East Africa
• Colour: Roan and White
• These have long legs, lopped ears and are polled.
• They produce 1-2 litres of milk per , day.

Jumnapari

• Origin: India
• Colour: White, black and fawn.
• They are horned, have large lopped ears
• Produce 1-1.5_litres of milk per day.

Toggenburg

• Origin: Switzerland
• Colour: White patches on the body, white stripes on the face and neck.
• Erect forward pointing ears and polled.
• Can produce 2-3 of milk per day.

Saanen

• Origin: Switzerland.
• Colour: White
• They have erect, forward pointing ears and polled.
• Can produce 2-3 Iitres of milk per day.

Angora

• Origin: Angora in Asia.
• Colour: White
• It is kept for wool production.

French alpine. Pigs

Characteristics:

• They are sparsely haired and therefore cannot withstand cold.
• Pigs wallow when it is hot due to absence of sweat glands.
• They breathe fast when it is hot.
• They have bristles instead of hair.

Breeds

Large White

• Origin: Britain

• _ Kept for bacon and pork production.

• Long, large and white in colour.
• Ears straight and erect.
• Has dished face and snout.
• Most prolific and with good mothering ability.
• Fairly hardy.

Landrace

• Origin: Denmark

• White and longer than large white. _
• Ears drooping.
• Good for bacon production.
• Very prolific with good mothering ability. _

• Requires high level of management.

Wessex Saddle

• Back Origin: England
• Colour: Black with white forelegs and shoulders.
• Straight snout and drooping ears. _
• Good for bacon and pork.
• Good for keeping outdoors.
• Excellent mothering instincts.

Other pig breeds include:

• Berkshire,
• Middle-white
• Duroc  Jersey pig.

Pigs can be crossed to obtain hybrids or crosses.

Advantages of Crosses

• Increased litter size. _
• Early maturing.

• _ Increase in body length.
• _ High proportion of lean meat to fat.

Poultry Breeds

There are three types of chicken breeds:

• The light breeds kept for egg production.
• The heavy breeds kept for meat production.
• Dual purpose breeds – kept for both eggs and meat production.

Characteristics of Light Breeds

• Never go broody hence poor sitters.
• Excellent layers (over 220 eggs per year).
• Poor meat producers (hens can attain 2kg; cocks 3kgs)
• Very nervous and exhibit high degree of cannibalism.
• Hen’s comb is large and bent over one eye and cock’s comb is large with 5 – 6 serrations.

      Examples:

• Leghorns,
• Anconas,
• Silkies,
• Minorcas.

Characteristics of Heavy Breeds

• Can lay few eggs and provide good meat as broilers.
• Can go broody.
• Heavier and bigger in size.
• Grow fast.

      Examples:

• Light Sussex,
• Cornish Dark
• White.

Characteristics of Dual–Purpose Breeds

• Go broody.
• Have good meat.
• Disease resistant (do not require high standard of management).
• Rarely exhibit cannibalism.

        Examples: Rhode Island Red.

Hybrids

• These are developed by crossing two different breeds.
• They are superior in performance.
• Can attain 2kg in 56 days for broilers and layover 200 eggs per year for layers.

Examples:

• Shavers,
• Thombers -Isabrown.

Rabbits

Kept for the following reasons:

• To provide meat, fur, hair or wool.
• To provide skin for leather.
• To provide manure.
• As pet ani
• Used for research purposes.

Breeds

• Californian white: white, very prolific black ears, nose and feet).
• New Zealand white: (white with pink eyes – good for meat).
• Flemish giant (dark grey – good for meat).

• Angora rabbit (white, kept for wool production).
• Chinchillah (greyish, kept for its fur).
•  Earlops (white with droopy ears).
• Kenya white (white, smallest of breeds).

Camels

       Kept for;

• Transport,
• Racing,
• To provide milk, meat and wool.

There are two species of camels.

Dromedary (Camelus dromedarius)

• Origin: Arabia and Syria
• Are single humped, have light body
• Good for racing and rapid transport.

Bacterian (Camelus bacterianus)

• Origin: Central Asia

• Has double humps, heavier and has shorter legs.
• Can live in cold regions hence its thick and long coat acts as insulation.
• Capable of shedding the coat during spring.

Terms used to describe livestock in different age, sex and use.

Agricultural Economics I

(Basic Concepts and Farm Records)

Introduction

• Economics is the study of how man and society chooses to allocate scarce productive resources to produce various commodities, over time, and distribute them among various consumers in society.
• It attempts to explain how man can best use the limited resources to produce goods and services which satisfies his needs with minimum wastage or loss of these resources

 Example;

• food,
• clothing
• shelter
• Agricultural economics is therefore defined as a science that aims at maximizing output while minimizing costs by combining the limited supplies of goods and services for use by the society over a certain period of ti

• These are;

• land,
• capital,
• labour
• management

Basic economic Principles

Scarcity

• Economic scarcity means resources are limited in supply relative to demand.
• This principle implies that there is no time that man can have enough resources to satisfy all his need or desires

Choice/Preference

• Human wants are many and varied and means of satisfying them are limited.
• Therefore, man has to make a choice among the alternatives in order to use the resources available.
• Man does this by satisfying the most pressing needs first.
•  This is called scale of preference.

Opportunity Cost

• Opportunity cost is the revenue forgone from the best alternative.
•  It exists only where there are alternatives.
• Where there are no alternatives the opportunity cost is equal to zero.
• Opportunity cost helps in decision making.

Farm Records

• Farm records are documents kept in the farm
• They show farm activities carried out over a long period of time
• Or information kept in the farm in written form, about the farm and all activities in it.

Uses of Farm Records

• Show the history of the farm
• Show whether the farm is making a profit or loss.
• Show all the assets and liabilities of the farm which can be used to value the farm.
• Help in supporting insurance claims on death, theft, fire or loss of farm assets.
• Help in tax assessment to avoid over taxation.
• Used as a guide in planning and budgeting.
• Helps to detect losses or theft in the farm.
• Make it easy to share profits or losses in partnerships.
• Help in settling disputes among heirs to estate if the farmer dies without a will.

• Provide labour information on terminal benefits for a worker.

Type of Farm Records

• Production Records – Show the total yield and yield per unit of each enterprise.

• Inventory Records – A record of all permanent and consumable goods in the farm.

Consumable Goods Inventory

Field Operation Records – Show in details all field practices carried out together with the input used for all the crop enterprises.

• Breeding Records –

• Show all the breeding activities in the farm.
• From these records it is possible to select the prolific animals and cull the infertile ones.

• Feeding Records – A record of the types of feeds used in the farm and their quantities.

• Health Records –

• Indicates the health conditions of the animals in the farm.

              From these records it is possible to:

Select and cull animals on health grounds.