Best Agriculture Notes Form 2 Free (Editable)

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 AGRICULTURE FORM 2

Soil Fertility II

(Inorganic Fertilizers)

 

Introduction

Essential Elements

Macro-nutrients

They include;

 

Role of Macronutrients in Plants

 Nitrogen (NO3,NH4++)

 

Sources:

Role of Nitrogen in Plants

 

Deficiency Symptoms

Effect of Excess Nitrogen

Loss of Nitrogen From the Soil:

Phosphorus (H2 P04, HPO2-4 P2O5)

      Sources:

Role of Phosphorus

Deficiency symptoms

 

Loss of Phosphorus From the Soil

 

Potasium (K+, K2O)

Sources;

Role of Potassium in Plants

Deficiency Symptoms

Loss of Potassium From the Soil

 Calcium (Ca2+)

Source:

Role of Calcium in Plants

Deficiency symptoms

Loss of Calcium

Magnesium (Mg2+)

Sources:

Role of Magnesium in Plants

Deficiency symptoms

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Sulphur (S04 2- ,SO2)

 

 Sources:

Role of Sulphur in Plants

Deficiency Symptoms

 Micro-nutrients

They include;

Role of Micronutrients and Their Deficiency Symptoms

Inorganic Fertilizers

Classification According to:

 

 

Properties and Identification of Fertilizers

Nitrogenous Fertilizers

Characteristics

Examples:

Physical appearance:

 

Phosphate Fertilizers

Examples;

 

 

Potassic Fertilizers

Characteristics:

Examples;

 

Compound or Mixed Fertilizers

Examples;

Advantages of application of compound fertilizers

Disadvantages of compound fertilizers application

Methods of fertilizer application

 

 

 

Determination of Fertilizer Rates

Contents of fertilizers are expressed as fertilizer grade or fertilizer analysis.

Example 10:20:0 means for every 10kg of the mixture there are 10kg of nitrogen, 20kg of P2O 5 and 0kg of K2O.

Example

A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:

How much sulphate of ammonia (20%) would be required per hectare?

How much double super-phosphate (40%) P2O5would be required per hectare?

How much muriate of potash (50% K2O) would be required per hectare?

Answer/Solution

= 60

20x 100 =300kg SA

60

= 40x 100 =150kg DSP

= 60 x 100=100kg muriate of potash

                 60

 

 

Example

A farmer was asked to apply fertilizers as follows:

How much P2O5 did the farmer apply per acre?

How much K2O did the farmer apply per hectare?

How much N did the farmer apply per hectare?

Solution/Answer

40                            

= 100x 200= 80kg/ha P2O 5

60

= 100×150=90kg/ha    K2O

20

= 100 x 150= 30kg/ha N

Soil Sampling

Soil Sampling Procedures

Sites to Avoid

Methods Of Soil Sampling:

Soil Testing

Importance of Soil testing:

How Soil pH affects Crop Production

 

 

Methods of pH Testing

 

Labour Records – show labour utilization and labour costs.

 

Crop production II (Planting)

 

Types of planting materials

Seeds

Advantages of using seeds as planting materials.

 

 

Disantivantages of using seeds as planting materials.

  1. Vegetative materials.
    • These are plant parts which have the ability to produce roots, they grow and develop in to new plants.
    • Plant parts such as leaves, roots or stems can be used for planting as long as they are capable of rooting.

 Advantages of using vegetative materials for planting.

Disadvantages.

      Plant parts used for vegetative propagation.

    • These are tiny sisal plants produced in the inflorescence almost at the end of the plant growth cycle.
    • They resemble the mother plant except that they are smaller in size.
    • They are produced by the branches of the sisal pole.
    • When manure they mature they develop rudimentary roots and fall off to the ground just below the pole.
    • They are the collected and raised in the nurseries before they are transplanted t\o the main field.
    • One sisal pole may produce as many as 3,000 bulbils. They are usually 10cm long. They make good planting materials and are better than sucke
  2. Splits

 

  1. Suckers

 

  1. Tubers

 

 

 

Factors affecting rooting of cuttings.

  1. Relative humidity: Proper rooting of cuttings requires high humidity which lower the transpiration rate. It also increases and maintains leaf turgidity all the time. As such, cuttings should be rooted in green houses or under shady conditions, where relative humidity can be regulated. Sometimes the propagation area can be sprayed with water to keep it moist.
  2. Light intensity: soft wood cuttings need high intensity light to produce roots. This is because light promotes the production of roots since it affects the rate of photosynthesis. Hard wood cuttings do well in dark conditions since they have high amount of stored carbohydrates and therefore rooting is excellent in darkness.
  3. Oxygen supply: plentiful supply of oxygen is required for root formation. The rooting medium used must therefore be capable of allowing proper aeration.
  4. Chemical treatment: these rooting hormones which promote the production of roots in cuttings. The common ones include IAA (Indoleacetic acid).
  5. Leaf area: Soft woods cuttings require a lot of leaves for photosynthesis while hardwood cuttings will produce roots better without leaves.

Selection of planting materials

When selecting materials for planting the following factors must be considered:

In Kenya certified seeds are produced by the Kenya seed company (KSC) and distributed by Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) and other agents.

PREPARATION OF PLANTING MATERIALS.

After the planting materials are selected they are prepared in different ways before they are planted. Some of the methods used to prepare planting materials include the following:

 

       (a)Breaking the seed dormancy.

Some seeds undergo a dormancy period between maturity and the time they sprout. The dormancy period is the stage                 whereby a seed cannot germinate, the stage of inhibited growth of seed. It should be broken before the seed is planted.

Methods of breaking seed dormancy.

The following methods are used to break seed dormancy:

   (I) Mechanical method:  This is a method which aims at scratching the seed coat to make it permeable to water. Scarification is done by rubbing small sized seeds against hard surface such as sand paper, while filling or nicking the seed coat with a knife is done to large sized seeds such as croton seeds.

(ii) Heat treatment: this involves the use of hot water or burning the seeds lightly. It softens the seed coat making it permeable to water and thus is able to germinate. The seeds are soaked in hot water about 80’c for 3-4 minutes after which the water is allowed to drain off. Example of seeds treated in this way include:  leucean  calliadra and acacia.

Light burning also serves the same purpose as hot water treatment. In this case trash is spread over the seeds which are already covered with a thin layer of soil. The trash is burned, after which the seeds are retrieved and planted. Examples include acacia and wattle tree seeds. Overheating should be avoided as this will cook the seeds.

(iii)Chemical treatment: seeds are dipped in specific chemicals such as concentrated sulphuric acid, for two minutes and then removed. The chemical wears off the seed coat making it permeable to water. Care should be taken not to leave the seeds in the chemicals for too long as this will kill the embryo. Cotton seeds are normally treated with chemicals to remove the lint or fibres.

  1. iv) Soaking in water: seeds are soaked in water for a period of between 24 – 48 hours until they swell. They are then removed and planted immediately. The seeds treated thus germinate very fast. Pre-germinated seeds are used when raising rice in the nurseries.
  2. b) Seed dressing

This is the coating of seeds with fungicides or an insecticide or a combination of the two chemicals. This is particularly common with cereals, sugar-cane and legumes.

The chemicals protect the seedlings from soil-borne diseases and pests. Certified seeds which are sold by seed merchants in Kenya have been dressed with these chemicals. Farmers can also buy the chemicals and dress their own seeds.

  1. C) Seed inoculation

In areas where soils are deficient in nitrogen, legumes such as beans, clovers and peas should be coated with an inoculant. An innoculant is a preparation which contains the right strain of Rhizobium depending on the type of legume and encourages nodulation, hence nitrogen fixation. Below is a table showing different legume crops and their right strain of Rhizobium.

Crop inoculation group Rhizobium Species
Lucerne R. melioti
Clover R. trifoli
Pea R. leguminosarum
Bean R. phaseoli
Lupin R. lupini
soyabean R. japonicum

 

When handling inoculated seeds, care should be taken to prevent them from coming in contact with chemicals. This means that inoculated seeds should not be dressed with chemicals as these will kill the bacterium. They should also be planted when the soil is moist to avoid dehydration which kills the bacterium.

 

 

 

 

 

  1. d) Chitting

This practice is also referred to as sprouting. The selected seed potatoes ‘setts’ which are used as planting materials are sprouted before planting to break their dormancy. The setts of about 3-6 cm in diameter are arranged in layers of 2 or 3 tubers deep in a partially

 

 

 

 

 

darkened room. The setts should be arranged with the rose- end facing upwards and the heel-end downwards. Diffused light encourages the production of short, green and healthy sprouts. If Chitting is done in complete darkness, long, pale thin sprouts develop which break easily during planting. During Chitting potato aphids and tuber months should be controlled by dusting or spraying the sett with dimethoate. Sometimes a chemical known as Rendite is used to break dormancy, thus inducing sprouting. Chitting is done mainly to make sure that growth commences immediately the seed is planted so as to make maximum use of rains for high yields.

Time of planting

The timing of planting or sowing is influenced by the type of crop to be planted and the environmental conditions of the area.

Factors to consider in timing planting.

Timely planting is necessary and should be done at the onset of rains. In some areas where rainfall is scare dry planting is recommended.

Advantages of timely planting.

Methods of planting.

There are two main methods of planting :-

Broadcasting.

This method involves scattering the seeds all over the field in a random manner. It is commonly adapted for light tiny seeds such as those of pasture grasses. It is easier, quicker and cheaper than row planting. However, it uses more seeds than row planting and the seeds are spread unevenly leading to crowding of plants in some places. This results in poor performance due to competition. Broadcasting gives a good ground cover, but weeding cannot be mechanized. For good results, the seedbed should be weed-free, firm and have a fine tilth.

Row planting.

The seeds or other planting materials are placed in holes, drills or furrows in rows. The distance between one row to the other and from one hole to the other is known. In Kenya, both large and small – scale farmers practice row planting. It is practiced when planting many types of crops, especially perennial, annual and root crops.

Advantages of row planting.

Disadvantages of row planting.

Seeds can also be planted by dibbling where the planting holes are dug by use of pangas or jembe, or by a dibbling stick (dibbler). Most of the dibbling is done randomly although  rows can also be used when using a planting line. Random dibbling is not popular in commercial farming due to low levels of production. It is only common among conservative farmers in planting of legumes such as beans, pigeon peas and cow peas.

Over-sowing.

This is the introduction of a pasture legume such as desmodium in an existing grass pasture. Some form of growth suppression of existing grass such as burning, slashing or hard grazing plus slight soil disturbance is recommended before over sowing. A heavy dose of superphosphate, preferably single supers at a rate of 200-400 kg/ha is applied. The grass must be kept short until the legume is fully established. Regardless of the method of establishment, the pastures and fodder stands should be ready for light grazing 4-5 months after planting if rainfall and soil fertility are not limiting.

Under-sowing.

This refers to the establishment of pasture under a cover crop, usually maize. Maize is planted as recommended and weeded 2-3 weeks after the onset of rains. Pasture seeds are then broadcasted with half the recommended basal fertilizer. No further weeding should be done and maize should be harvested early to expose the young pasture seedlings to sunlight. The benefits of under sowing include facilitating more intensive land utilization and encouraging an early establishment of pastures.

Fodder crops and vegetetively propagated pasture species may also be under sown as long as rainfall is adequate for their establishment. Timing is not very crucial in this case and planting can be done as late as 6-8 weeks after the onset of rains.

Plant population

This refers to the ideal number of plants that can be comfortably accommodated in any given area, without overcrowding or too few to waste space. Agricultural research has arrived at the optimum number of various crop plants to be recommended to farmers. Plant population is determined by dividing the planting area by spacing of the crop. This may be simplified thus:

Area of land

Plant population =

Pacing of crop

 

Example

 

Given that maize is planted at a spacing of 75 x25 cm, calculate the plant population in a plot of land measuring 4×3 m.

 

Working

Area of land

Plant population =

Pacing of crop

 

Area of land                                   =  400cm x 300 cm

 

Spacing of maize                        = 75 cm x 25 cm

 

Therefore, plant population    = 400 cm x 300 cm

75 cm x 25 cm

 

=   64 plants.

 

Spacing

It is the distance of plants between and within the rows. Correct spacing for each crop has been established as shown in table below.

 

 

 

 

 

 

crop spacing
Maize

(Kitale)

hybrids

 75 – 90 cm x 23 – 30 cm
Coffee

(Arabica) tall varieties

 2.75 cm x 2.75m
Tea 1.5 m by 0.75 m
Beans (erect type) 45 -60 m by 25 cm
Bananas 3.6 – 6.0 m by 3.6 – 4.5 m
Coconut 9 m x 9 m
Tomatoes (Money maker) 100 x 50 cm
kales 60 x 60 cm

 

Spacing determines plant population and the main aim of correct spacing is to obtain maximum number of plants per unit area which will make maximum use of environmental factors. Wider spacing leads to a reduced plant population which means lower yields, whereas closer spacing could lead to overcrowding of plants and competition for nutrients and other resources would occur. Correctly spaced crops produce yield of high quality that are acceptable in the market.

 

 

 

Spacing is determined by the following factors:

The space between the rows should allow free passage of the machinery which can be used in the field. For example, the spacing between rows of coffee is supposed to allow movement of tractor drawn implements.

A fertile soil can support high plant population. Therefore closer spacing is possible.

Tall crop varieties require wider spacing while short varieties require closer spacing, for example, Kitale hybrid maize is widely spaced than Katumani maize.

Areas with higher rainfall are capable of supporting a large number of plants hence closer spacing than areas of low rainfall.

Crop grown for the supply of forage or silage material is planted at a closer spacing than for grain production.

When crops are properly spaced, pests might find it difficult to move from one place to the other, for example, aphids in groundnuts.

Spreading and tillering crop varieties require wider spacing than erect type.

 

 

Seed rate.

Seed rate is the amount of seeds to be planted in a given unit area governed by ultimate crop stand which is desired. The objective of correct spacing of crop is to obtain the maximum yields from a unit area without sacrificing quality. Most crops are seeded at lighter rates under drier conditions than under wet or irrigated conditions. Seeds with low germination percentage are planted at higher rates than those which have about 100% germination percentage. There is an optimal seed rate for various crops. For example, the seed rate for maize is 22 kg per hectare, wheat is 110 kg per hectare and cotton is between 17 to 45 kg per hectare.

 

Factors to consider in choosing seed rates.

When planting seed which is pure or with a high germination percentage, less seed is required. On the contrary, more seeds are required when using impure or mixed seeds.

Less seed is used when its germination percentage is higher. Seed of lower germination percentage is required in large amounts.

At closer spacing, more seeds are used than in a wider spacing.

When two or more seeds are planted per hole, higher seed rate is required than when only one seed is planted per hole.

 

 

A crop to be used for silage making is spaced more closely than one meant for grain production. This would require use of more seeds. Maize to be used for silage making, for example, requires more seeds than that meant for production of grain.

 

Depth of planting.

This is the distance from the soil surface to where the seed is placed. The correct depth of planting is determined by:

 

 

Suggested Activities.

  1. Learners to carry out planting using broadcasting method and planting rows.
  2. Learners to identify different vegetative propagation materials displayed by the teacher.
  3. Learners to determine the correct plant population for a given area by mathematical calculations.
  4. Learners to collect samples of different tree seeds and prepare them for planting by various methods of breaking seed dormancy.
  5. Learners to determine the germination percentage of different samples of cereals and legume seeds.

 

 

 

 

 

Crop Production III

(Nursery Practices)

 

Introduction

 

Importance of Nursery Bed in Crop Production

 

Selection of a Nursery Site

Factors to consider;

 

Types of Nurseries

Categories of nurseries:

Nursery Management Practices:

They include:

 

Preparation of vegetative materials for planting:

Methods of Grafting

                              of  the scion.

Other types of grafting include ;

 

Budding:

Methods of Budding:

Importance of Budding and Grafting:

Layering

Types of layering;

 

Tissue Culture for Crop Propagation

 

   

 

 The Right Conditions  for tissue culture:

Importance of Tissue Culture in Crop Propagation

Transplanting Seedlings

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Crop production IV (Field Practices I)

 

Introduction

They include the following:

 

Crop Rotation

Importance of Crop Rotation

Factors Influencing Rotational Programme

Mulching

Importance of Mulching

Types of Mulching Materials

Advantages of Mulching

Disadvantages of Mulching

 

Routine Field Practices

Thinning

Gapping

Rogueing

Pruning

Reasons for pruning are:

       Note: Tools used are secateur, pruning saw and pruning knife.

Earthing-up

Crop Protection

Weed Control

Pest Control

Control of Crop Diseases

Harvesting

    Time of harvesting depends on:

Methods of harvesting is determined by:

Post-Harvest Practices

Storage

     Purpose of storage is to;

Requirements for proper store are:

 

Types of Storage

Preparation of the Store

 

Crop Production V: (Vegetables)

 

Introduction

Vegetables are grouped into the following categories:

 

Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum)

  Ecological Requirements

Varieties

Nursery Practices

Seedbed Preparation

 

Transplanting

Field Maintenance

Pests Controls

Disease Control

Caused by;

Harvesting

 

Cabbage

Ecological Requirements

 

Varieties

Nursery Practices

Seedbed Preparation

Transplanting

Field Maintenance

Pest Control

Disease Control

Harvesting

 

Carrots (Daucus carota)

   

Ecological Requirements

Varieties

Land Preparation

Planting

 

Field Practice

Pest Control

Disease Control

Harvesting and Marketing

 

Onions (Allium cepa)

    Ecological Requirements

Varieties

Land Preparation

Planting

Field Management Practices

Thinning

 

Topdressing

Pest Control

Onion Thrips:

Disease Control

Purple Blotch and Downey Mildew

Harvesting and Marketing

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Livestock Health  I

(Introduction to Livestock Health)

 

Introduction

 

Importance of Keeping Livestock Healthy:

Predisposing Factors to Livestock Diseases

 They include:

Signs of ILL-Health in Livestock

Causes of Diseases

Categories of Diseases

General Methods of Disease Control

Appropriate Methods of Handling Livestock

    Animals are handled for the following reasons:

When carrying out these activities animals should be restrained in a crush.

Other methods of restraining animals include the use of;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Livestock Health II (Parasites)

 

Introduction

 

The effects of parasite on the host animal are:

General Symptoms of Parasites Infestation:

Types of Parasites

There are two types of parasites:

External parasites are;

Life Cycle of ticks

 One–Host Tick

Two-Host Tick

 Three-Host Tick

Control of Ticks

Endo-parasites (internal Parasites)

    They can be divided into:

 

General Symptoms of Helminthiasis

Trematodes (Liver Fluke)

 

Life Cycle of the Liver Fluke

Control of Liver Fluke

Tapeworms

Eexample;

The adults live in the small intestines of man (the primary host).

Life Cycle of Tapeworm

Control of Tapeworms

 

Nematodes (Roundworms)

Common ones are;

     Nature of Damage

Control of Roundworms

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Livestock Production II (Nutrition)

 

Introduction

Components of Food material

Water

Sources

Functions

Factors Determining the Requirements of Water by Livestock

Protein

Sources:

Functions:

Digestion of Proteins

In non-ruminants, protein digestion takes placed in the stomach.

In ruminants, protein digestion initially takes place in the rumen.

Carbohydrates

Sources:

Functions:

Digestion of Carbohydrates

 

 

Fats and Oils

Sources:

Functions:

Digestion  of lipids in Ruminants

Vitamins

Sources:

Functions:

Examples:

 Minerals

Sources:

Functions:

Examples:

 

Classification of Animal Feeds

This is based on nutrient composition:

Roughages

     Examples:

Characteristics

Concentrates

      Examples:

Characteristics

Feed Additives

    These are substances added to the feed to increase;

There are two types:

Functions

Compounded Feeds

Poultry feeds can be categorized as:

Meaning of terms used to express feed values

Computation of Livestock Rations

 

Steps in ration formulation

 

   Methods used in ration formulation

Examples;

Mix a Pigs ration 22% protein using soya bean meal 40% DCP and maize meal containing 8%DCP.

Soya bean meal     (14 *100)=43.75kg

                                32

 

Maize meal   (18*100=56.25kg

                           32

 

Digestion and digestive systems

 

Digestion of food in livestock takes place in three stages;

 

 

 

 

 

Rumen-

   Reticulum:

   Omasum:

   Abomasum:

 

 

Comparison Between Digestion in Ruminant and Non–ruminants

 

Ruminants Non –ruminants
  • ,
  • l.
  • Chew the cud.
  • l.
  • Do not chew the cud.
  • 2.
  • Have four stomach chambers-thus
  • 2.
  • Have one stomach chamber
      polygastric.
           – thus monogastric.
  • 3.
  • Regurgitate food.
  • 3.
  • Cannot regurgitate food once
  • 4.
  • Can digest cellulose. Have
                swallowed.
  • micro-organisms in the rumen
  • 4.
  • Have no micro-organisms
  • that digest cellulose.
     in the stomach hence cannot
  • 5. Have no Ptyalin in saliva hence
  • digest cellulose except those
  • no enzymatic digestion in the mouth.
  • animals with micro-organisms
  • 6.
  • Most digestion and absorption takes
       in the caecum.
  • place in the rumen.
  • 5.
  • Have Ptyalin in the saliva hence
  • 7.
  • Have alkaline saliva due to presence
   enzymatic digestion starts in the mouth
  • of ammonia.
  • 6.
  • Most digestion and absorption takes place
       in the small intestines.
  • 7.
  • The saliva is neutral pH.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Functions of the Parts of Poultry

 

 

Comparison Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non–Ruminants

 

 

 

Similarities Between Digestion In Ruminants and Non–Ruminants  

 

 

 

 

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