The breeding of animals is under human control, and the breeders decide which individuals shall produce the next generation.
The breeder makes a choice.
The breeding of animals is based upon the fact that certain qualities are genetic; hence valuable qualities are passed on from parents to off -springs.
The qualities can be maintained or improved in the next generation.
The performance of an animal is influenced by two major factors;
Genetic potential
The environment, which includes:
Feeding,
Health,
Care
The ecological conditions.
The genetic potential of an animal is inherited from its parents.
In selection and breeding animals with superior characteristics are selected and allowedto mate.
In the process they transmit the superior characteristics to their offspring.
When this is done over a long period of time, it results in livestock improvement.
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Reproduction and Reproductive Systems
Reproduction is the process by which off-springs are produced.
All farm animals multiply by means of sexual reproduction.
It begins with fertilization which is the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Fertilization takes place internally in the body of the female.
The embryo(zygote) formed develops inside body of mother,fed and protected until end of gestation period.
In poultry,the process is different in that eggs are fertilized internally but laid and development of the chick takes place outside during incubation.
In both male and female, certain organs are specialized for the process of reproduction.
Some of these organs secrete fluids which are necessary for the movement and survival of the gametes(reproductive cells.)
Reproduction in Cattle
The male reproductive organs produce the male gametes,the spermatozoans.
These are introduced into female reproductive system,where they fuse with the sperm to form zygote.
The testis:
There are two testes hanging loosely between hind legs.
Enclosed by loose skin (scrotum)scrotum regulate temperature of testis for optimum production of sperms.
Produce spermatozoa(sperms)which are stored in coiled tube called epididymis.
Epididymis:Storage of spermatozoa.
Sperm ducts:
Conveys sperm from the testis and urine through the penis.
sphincter muscles contract to allow each to pass separately.
Seminal vesicles produce fluid called semen.
Semen carries sperms out of penis in fluid form.
Prostate gland-produce fluid that neutralize the acidic effects of urine in the urethra preventing death of sperms.
Accessory glands:Include seminal vesicles cowpers gland and prostate gland.
Urethra: Conveys urine and semen.
Penis:
Surrounded by a sheath which is an extension of skin.
It introduces sperms into the vagina of a cow through the vulva during mating.
It is a copulatory organ, also used for urination.
Ovaries and fallopian tubes (oviduct)
Two ovaries located in abdomen,left and right.
Produce ova/eggs and hormones which control sexual cycle.
Oestrogen produced by graafian follicle inside ovary induces oestrus
ie. Heat period so that the cow shows signs of heat
After every 21 days the ovary releases a mature ovum and the cow comes on heat.
The ovum travels through the fallopian tubes to the uterus.
The release and movement of the ovum down to the uterus is called ovulation.
If mating is done at this time, fertilization will take place.
The fertilized egg implants itself onto the endometrium (walls of uterus) and develops into foetus.
Fallopian tubes:
Fertilization takes place here.
Also a passage for the egg from the ovary to the uterus.
The uterus:
Embryo develops h
The cervix: Closes the uterus.
The vagina and Vulva:
Vulva is the external opening of female reproductive system.
It allows mating to take place so that sperms are deposited into the vagina.
The foetus and urine are removed through the vulva.
Pregnancy
Is period between fertilization of ova and the expulsion of the foetus through the vulva.
Also called gestation period.
In cattle gestation period is 270-285 days.
Ends with the birth of a calf.
The reproductive tract undergoes a period of rest during which it is repaired and returns to normal.
During pregnancy,hormone called progesterone is produced by the placenta to maintain the foetus in the uterus.
Parturition(giving birth)
Act of giving birth called parturition.
This time the foetus expelled through the birth canal.
When an animal is about to give birth, it shows signs;-
Distended udder which produces thick milky fluid called colostrums.
Swollen vulva producing thick mucus.
Loose and slackened pelvic girdle.
Visible pin bones.
General restlessness.
Animal parturates within 2-3 hours after these signs.
The correct presentation is with the front feet first ,and the head outstretched and resting in between the feet.
Any other presentation called mal-presentation or breech presentation and requires assistance.
Reproduction in Poultry
The cock has no penis but a small opening near the vent through which sperms are emitted.
Cock has testes within the body.
The hen has elongated oviduct for formation of an egg.
Fertilization occurs internally.
During mating the cloaca of the hen and the vent of the cock fit into each other and then semen is poured into the cloaca ,then sucked to the oviducts.
The Reproductive System of a Hen
Ovary
Hen has two ovaries but one functional.
Ova formed in ovaries.
3500-4000 ova present inside ovary held by follicle.
Mature ovum released via rapture of follicle.
It moves into oviduct received by the funnel.
Funnel(infundibulum)
Fertilization occurs here.
Chalazae also added to yolk.
Time here is 15 minutes.
It is 11.6cm long.
Magnum
Thick albumen is added.
Stays for 3hrs.its 33cm long.
Isthmus
Its 10.6cm long.
Shell membranes added.
Determines shape of egg.
Water,mineral salts and vitamins added.
Takes 15 minutes.
Uterus(shell gland)
Calcium deposited 9ie.shell added around the egg.
Pigments added.
Addition of albumin finished.
Stays here for 18-22hours.
Vagina
Short, 6.9cm long.
For temporal storage of egg before laying
Cloaca
Egg moves out of cloaca through the vent.
The cloaca extents out to prevent the egg from breaking.
NB;
Egg formation not depended on fertilization.
Egg formation takes 24-26hours.
The components of egg are obtained from body reserves of the hens body.
Selection of a Breeding Stock
Selection is used as a tool for livestock improvement.
A breeding stock is a group of males and females which act as parents of future generations.
Selection is the process of allowing certain animals to be parents of future generations while culling others.
Culling is the removal of animals which do not perform to the desired level, from the herd.
The animals retained have certain desirable characteristics which make them produce more.
Selected animals make up the breeding stock.
The breeding stock should pass the good qualities to their offsprings for betterperformance,to improve the livestock.
Selection process repeated for many generations increases chances of formation of desirable qualities in an animal.
Genetically termed as gene frequency(occurrence of the genes that carry desirable characteristics.)
Selection increases occurrence of desirable genes and decreases occurance of undesirable genes.
During selection, the characteristics to be selected for are first studied closely to ascertain that it is not influenced by the environment,but mainly by the genetic make-up.
Selection helps improve characteristics which are highly heritable.
Heritability means the likelihood of a particular trait to be transmitted to the offspringand they are strongly inherited.
A character like milk yield is lowly heritable,i.e. it is weakly inherited and a bigger percentage of the character is affected by the environment.
The degree to which selection affects a character depends on the following factors;
The heritability of the character
The intensity with which the selection is done
The interval between generations and kind of selection being practiced.
Factors To Consider When Selecting A Breeding Stock.
Age
Level of performance
Physical Fitness
Health
Body Conformation
Temperament or Behaviour
Quality of products
Mothering Ability
Adaptability
Proliferation
Age
Young animals,
Those that have not parturated for more than 3-times, should be selected.
They have a longer productive life.
Old animals are poor breeders and low producers.
Production and breeding efficiency decline with age.
Level of performance
Animals with highest production level selected.
Performance best indicated by records.
Good performance of animal indicated by;
High milk,wool and egg production,
Good mothering ability
High prepotency which is the ability of a parent to pass good qualities to their offsprings.
The animals with poor performance should be culled.
Good records kept and used by the farmer for this purpose.
Physical Fitness
Animals selected should be free from any physical defect
e.g.
mono-eyed,
limping,
irregular number of teats,
scrotal hernia,
defective and weak backline
Health
Sick animals do not breed well and are expensive to keep.
Animals that are resistant to diseases pass these characteristics to their offsprings
Body Conformation
Animals for breeding to be selected according to proper body conformation.
A dairy cow should be wedge-shaped with a large udder, thin legs, long neck.
Temperament or Behaviour
Animals with bad behaviors should be culled.eg
Cannibalism, egg eating, aggressiveness, kicking
Quality of products
Select animals that give products of high quality.
Mothering Ability
Animals selected should have a good mothering ability,
That is animals with good natural instinct towards their young ones.
This will enable them to rear the young ones up to weaning.
Adaptability
Animals selected should be well adapted to the prevailing climatic condition in the area.
Prolificacy
Animals selected should be highly prolific.
That is, animals with the ability to give birth to many offsprings at a time(larger litter).
This is a quality that should be considered when selecting pigs and rabbits.
Selection in cattle, and sheep,
Selection in cattle
Consider the following;
Level Of Performance Which Include;
Milk Yield Buter Content.
Length Of Lactation Period.
Calving Intervals.
Age Of The Animal,
Fertility,
Physical Fitness,
Health Of The Animal,
Body Conformation,
Suitability Of The Enterprise-Milk Or Beef
Selection in sheep
Consider the following;
Level of performance which includes;
Mothering ability
Growth rate
Wool quality
Carcass quality
Twining rate
Age
Suitability to the enterprise-wool or mutton
Flocking instinct
Health of the animal
Physical fitness
Inheritable defects
Fertility
Inheritable defects.
Fertility.
Selection in Goats
Consider the following:
Fertility.
Mothering ability.
Growth rate.
Twining rate
Carcass quality/dressing percentage.
Growth rate.
Suitability to the enterprise – milk or mutton.
Health of the animal.
Age.
Selection in Pigs
Consider the following:
Carcass quality/dressing percentage.
Suitability to the enterprise (bacon or pork)
Growth rate.
Health of the animal.
Mothering ability.
Prolificacy.
Number of teats.
Temperament.
Body formation.
Age.
Heredity defects
Selection in Camels
Health of the animal.
Age.
Temperament.
Foraging ability.
Fertility.
Level of performance-milk, meat, fur and transport.
Method of Selection
These include:
Mass selection– Animals with superior characteristics are selected from a herd and then allowed to mate among each other.
Progeny testing – assessing on the breeding value of an animal on the basis of performance of its offsprings.
Contemporary comparison-comparison of performance between heifers of the same age and sexual maturity.
Breeding
Process of mating selected males and females to produce offspring with the desired characteristics.
Reasons:
To expand the inherited potential of the animal.
To improve production.
To overcome production problems created by the environment.
To satisfy consumers taste.
For economic reasons.
Terms Used in Breeding
Inheritance
Genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offsprings.
The mechanism of inheritance is carried by the sex cells (gametes) and is controlled by genes found in the chromos
Genes are very tiny units of inheritance carrying particular characteristics, such as colour, body shape and amount of milk production.
Chromosomes are genetic materials which carry genes.
They exist in pairs paternal and maternal) in the nucleus fthe body cells.
They are always constant in number.
Dominant and Recessive Characteristics
A dominant gene is one that suppresses the othe
It produces a dominant characteristi
A recessive gene is one that is suppressed by the other.
It produces a recessive characteristic.
Hybrid and Hybrid Vigour
A hybridis an animal which is the product of crossing animals of two different breeds.
Hybrid vigour or heterosis is increased vigour and performance resulting from crossing two superior breed
Epistasis
This is the masking of the effect of one gene by another gene which is non-allelic, that is situated on different locus.
Breeding Systems
Inbreeding
Mating of animals which are related. Reasons:
To increase genetic uniformity in a herd.
Used to fix the required characteristics in new breeds.
To increase phenotypic u
To get proven si
Limitations
It can bring about loss of hybrid vigour.
It may lead to decline in fertility.
It may lead to high rate of pre-natal mortality.
Systems of Inbreeding
Close Breeding: mating between very closely related animals, for example sib-mating and parents sib-mating.
Line Breeding:mating of distantly related animals that had a common ancestor for example cousins.
Outbreeding
Mating of animals which are not related.
Reasons:
To introduce new genes in an existing breeding herd.
To exploit heterosis resulting from a cross between two breeds.
To develop a new breed or a grade animal.
Limitations
Lack of uniformity in animals that result from outbreeding.
Desirable characteristics may be lost due to variation.
Systems of Outbreeding
Cross-breeding
Mating of animals from two different pure breeds.
Out–Crossing
Mating of unrelated animals from the same breed.
Upgrading/Grading up
Mating where the female of a cow grade stock (locals) is mated with a pure breed sire.
The resultant animal is referred to as a high grade.
Mating in Livestock
Mating in Cattle
Heat signs occur every 21 days.
The heat period last for 18-30 hourson average 24 hours.
Cow should be served 12-18 hours after showing the first heat signs.
Heat Signs
Restlessness.
Mounting on others and when mounted on she stands still.
Rise in body temperature.
Drop in milk production in lactating cows.
Vulva swells and becomes reddish.
Clear or slimy mucus from the vulva.
Bellowing or mooing frequently.
Mating in Pigs
Heat signs in pigs occur after every 21 days.
The heat lasts about 72 hours.
Sows or gilts should be served in 18- 36 hours of the heat period.
Signs of Heat
Restlessness.
Frequent urination.
Swelling and reddening of the vulva.
Clear or slimy discharge from the vulva.
Frequent mounting on others.
It responds very well to the ‘riding test’.
Mating in Rabbits
Does are ready for mating 6-7 months of age.
Heat signs occur every 14 days.
The doe should be taken to the buck and not vice versa.
Signs of Heat
Restlessness.
Frequent urination.
Swollen vulva.
The doe throws herself on the side.
The doe rubs herself against the wall or any other solid object.
The doe tries to contact otherrabbits in the next hutch by peeping.
Methods of Service in Livestock
Natural Mating
Advantages:
It is more accurate.
It is less laborious.
Useful when heat signs of females cannot be easily detected.
Disadvantages
Inbreeding is not easily controlled.
Transmission of breeding diseases.
Extra feed for the male is required.
Large males can injure small females.
Wastage of semen.
It is cumbersome and expensive to transport a bull to remote areas.
Artificial insemination
Introduction of semen into the female reproductive tract by artificial means.
Advantages
There is economical use of semen.
It controls transmission of breeding diseases.
Sires that are unable to serve cows due to heavy weight or injury can produce semen to serve cows.
It prevents large bulls from injuring small cows.
It reduces the expenses of keeping a male animal.
A small scale farmer who cannot afford to buy a superior bull can have the cows served at a low cost.
Semen can be stored for long.
It helps to control inbreeding.
It eliminates the threat of keeping dangerous bulls from the farm.
It makes research work easier.
Disadvantages
Harmful characteristics can be spread quickly by one bull to the offsprings.
It requires skilled labour.
Low chance of conception due to death of semen during storage.
It is laborious:
Embryo Transplant
It is the implantation of an embryo (fertilized ova) from a high quality female (donor) in the uterus of a low grade female (recipient).
The eggs are fertilised in test-tubes and then embryos are implanted into foster mothers (recipient)
Steps
– Select superior male and female.
– Stimulate the female to release multiple eggs by injecting it with hormones
– Stimulate the recipient female by injecting it with hormones.
– Inseminate the female donor with semen from a superior male.
-Developing embryos are removed after 7 days.
– Embryos are observed for viability.
– Embryos are stored under liquid nitrogen where they remain viable indefinitely.
– Each embryo is placed into the uterus of the recipient cow
Advantages
Faster multiplication of an animal with superior characteristics .
It is easier to transport embryos than the whole animal.
Embryos can be stored for a long period awaiting the availability by recipient females.
It stimulates milk production in a female (recipient) that was not ready to produce milk.
Low grade animals can be used in production and rearing of high quality animals.
Offsprings of a superior female can spread quickly in an area.
Controls sexually transmitted diseases.
Makes it easier to plan for breeding.
Prevents injury of cows by heavy bulls.
It allows embryos to obtain passive immunity from the surrogate mother.
It is possible to screen and market sexed embryos to minimize the number of male calves.
Disadvantages
It is expensive.
It requires skilled personnel.
It requires special equipment for fertilization and storage of embryos.
It is very laborious.
Signs of Parturition in Livestock
Parturition is the act of giving birth in female animals.
Parturition in Cattle
The gestation period in cattle is 270-285 days averaging 280days.
Signs of Parturition
Restlessness
Enlarged or swollen vulva.
Clear mucus discharge from the vulva.
Slackening of the pelvic muscles.
Full and distended udder.
Thick milky fluid from the teats.
A water bag appears and bursts just before calving.
Parturition in Pigs
The gestation period in pigs is about 4 months or 3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days.
Signs of Parturition
Restlessness.
The vulva turns red and swells.
The udder becomes full with a milky fluid the sow starts to prepare a nest by collecting some beddings at one comer of the pen.
Parturition in Rabbits
The gestation period in rabbits is 28-32 days.
Signs of Parturition
Preparing a nest by plucking off hairfrom her belly.
Goes off feeding
Restlessness.
The udder distends.
Livestock Production IV
(Livestock Rearing Practice)
Introduction
In the management of livestock there are many activities that are carried out on animals to enhance production.
They require care in feeding, health, breeding.
Specific management also important in bee and fish farming.
Routine livestock rearing practices.
A routine is a fixed/regular way of doing something.
They are done repeatedly after a certain period of time
a). Feeding Practice
Animals are fed to cater for both maintenance and production requirements.
There are special types of feeding carried out on certain animals to cater for specific needs.
These include:
Flushing
The practice of giving a high plane of nutrition to the animal around service time.
In sheep it is done 2-3 weeks before tupping and 3 weeks after tupping.
In pigs it is done 3-4 weeks before service.
Importance of Flushing
It increases conception rates.
It enhances implantation of the zy
In sheep it increases twinning percentage by 15-20% or prolificacy.
The heat period (oestrus) in a group of ewes can be synchronized.
Steaming Up
Is the practice of giving extra feed of high nutritive value to an animal during the last week of gestation.
In cattle it is done 6-8 weeks before calving, ewe 3-4 weeks before lambing, goat 3-4 weeks before kidding, sow 6 weeks prior to farrowing, Doe 2 weeks prior to kindling.
Importance Steaming Up
It provides nutrients for maximum foetal growth.
It helps in the build up of energy for parturition.
It ensures the birth of a healthy animal.
It promotes good health of the mother.
It increases and maintains high milk yield after birth.
Creep Feeding
Is the practice of providing young livestock with extra feed of high nutritive value to supplement the mother’s milk.
Piglets
10 days old – introduced to creep pellets.
5 weeks old – creep pellets mixed with sow and weaner meals.
8 weeks old – weaning.
Lambs
Run with their mothers for natural suckling.
Bucks – introduced to succulent feeds and concentrates.
Kids
Meat goats kids suckle naturally.
Dairy goats, fed on milk artificially,
Given 0.5-1.25 litres up to the third week.
Introduced to concentrates at 3-4 months.
Weaned at 6-8 weeks of age.
Importance of creep feeding
– it helps facilitate early weaning
– desired market weight can be achieved early.
– existing pasture can be used to rear more animals.
– makes the young animals less prone to internal parasites.
Parasite and Disease Control Practices
Vaccination
Vaccination is the introduction active disease organisms which are reduced in strength or virulent into the animals’body to induce immunity.
Administration of Vaccination done through:
By injection.
Orally through the mouth.
By inhalation through the nose.
Eye drops.
Through the cloaca.
Forms Of Vaccine.
a) Toxoids – are made from toxins that are produced by disease-causing organisms. The toxins are treated with formalin to produce toxoids.
b) Live virulent- are living organisms which on being introduced into the body of an animal are capable of causing a disease. Their presence stimulates production of antibodies.
c) Dead or killed- consists of disease- causing organisms that are killed.
d) Live attenuated- are living disease causing organisms whose ability to cause a disease has been reduced.
Deworming (drenching)
Practice of killing/removing internal parasites by administering drugs known as dewormers/antihelmitics.
Equipment used for deworming include; dosing gun/bolus gun, drenching gun, narrow-necked bottle.
Hoof Trimming
Cutting back overgrown hooves with the help of a hoof trimming knife, a hoof cutter or a hoof rasp.
Importance
Facilitate easy movement.
Control of foot rot disease.
Facilitate mating – prevent the ram from injuring the ewe during tupping.
Docking /tailing
This is the removal (cutting off) of tails in sheep during the first week after birth. (2-3 weeks)
Importance
Even distribution of body fat.
Facilitate easy mating in adult life.
Minimise fouling of the wool with faeces.
Reduce incidences of blowfly infestation.
Methods of Docking /tailing or equipment used for docking.
Cutting with sharp knife or scalpel.
Use of elastrator and rubber ring.
Hot iron.
Burdizzor.
Dipping and Spraying
These are methods of applying acaricides on the animals to control external parasites.
Dipping is carried out in machakos or plunge dip.
Spraying is carried out using stir-up pump, in a crush or in a spray race.
Dusting
It is the application of chemical powders on the animal body or on the walls of the animal house to control external parasites.
It is used to control stick-fast parasites and fleas in poultry.
C)Breeding Practices
These are practices carried out to enhance successful breeding.
Crutching and Ringing
Crutching/belting/sagging/tugging/burling – cutting of wool around the external reproductive organs of female sheep.
Ringing – trimming wool around the sheath of the penis of the rams to facilitate mating.
Tupping and Serving
Tupping refers to mating in sheep and goats.
Serving refers to mating in cattle and pigs.
It should be ensured that the sizes of both the male and female are matched to avoid any injuries in case of a small female with a large male or sexual frustrations in case of a small male and a large female.
Raddling
This is the practice of fitting the rams with breeding chutes which are painted in different colours during mating
Reasons for Raddling.
– Identify the ewes that have been served.
– Identify the active ram and cull the weak ones.
– Identify the ewes and rams that are infertile.
– Identify the ewes with repeated heat.
Identification
The practice of putting identification marks labels on farm animals.
Branding– burning marks on the animals skin using a hot iron with identification marks.
– Branding areas include the hock, on the side of the jaws.
Demerits of branding.
– causes a lot of pain.
– indiscriminate branding reduces the quality of the hides and skins.
Ear tagging – placing marked plastic or metallic tags on the animals ears.
Ear notching – cutting different shapes bearing different values on the ear lobes. Each pattern stands for a certain value.
Tattooing – use of permanent ink or dye to mark animals with light skin. It suitable for pigs and rabbits.
Neck strap or chain – Fixing of tags round the animals neck with a chain or a strap.
Importance/ purpose of Identification
record keeping.
Disease control and treatment.
Feeding.
Selection and breeding.
Culling.
Settling disputes in case animals mix during grazing.
Debeaking
Cutting about 1/3 of the upper beak with a knife, scissors or hot iron.
Importance
Control egg eating.
Control cannibalism.
Tooth Clipping
The removal (clipping) of the needle (canine) teeth in piglets 24 hours after birth.
Importance of tooth clipping.
– Avoid injury on teats.
– Control mastitis.
– Avoid piglets hurting each other.
– Prevent cannibalism.
Culling
Removal of undesirable animals from a breeding herd to leave high quality and productive ones.
Reasons for culling in livestock.
– Poor health.
– Age.
– Poor production.
– Have hereditary defects.
– Are not capable of producing young ones.
– To avoid inbreeding.
– Poor mothering ability.
Criterion for culling poor layers in poultry.
– Dull eyes.
– Breasts becomes hard.
– Width between the pelvic bones becomes narrow.
– Combs, wattles and the vent become shriveled.
– Skin colour of the bird changes from white to yellow pigment in the vent, legs and beaks.
Dehorning
Removal of horns or horn buds from an animal.
If the horn buds are removed early before they become hard cartilages, the method is called disbudding while if the horn bud grew into a hard horn then it’s removal is referred to as dehorning
Methods of dehorning.
– Use of caustic potash stick (potassium hydroxide).
– Use of disbudding iron.
– Use of dehorning saw or wire.
– Use of rubber ring and elastrator.
– Use of dehorning collodion.
Importance
It prevents animals from injuring each other.
It makes the animal docile and therefore easy to han
For easy transportation and feeding.
Prevents destruction offarm structures.
Shearing
The practice of cutting wool from all over the body of a sheep.
It starts at the age of 8 months and then done once a year.
Should be done during the dry season.
Tools used: wool shears.
Care must be taken not to cut the skin, testicles, udder, vulva and penis.
Precautions to observe when shearing.
– Ensure the shearing floor is clean.
– There should be proper drainage of urine and feaces.
– Ensure that the wool is free from grease and other oils.
– Avoid cutting the skin, vulva and the testis.
– Ensure that shears are in good working condition.
Castration
It is the rendering of a male animal incapable of reproducing through removal or rendering the testicles nonfunctional.
Equipment used for castration.
– Burdizzo.
– Rubber ring with elastrator.
– Knife
– Scapel/surgical blade.
Importance
To control breeding diseases.
To control breeding.
For faster growth rates.
Increase quality of meat by removing unpleasant smell especially in goats.
Helps to control mating.
Males become docile/less aggressive.
Methods Used:
Closed/bloodless method
involves use of burdizzo or rubber ring and ela
Animals do not bleed but may not be 100% effecti
Open method
A surgical method used for castrating cocks, piglets and rabbits whose testes are internal.
Also used for lambs, kids and calves.
Animals bleed a lot.
However, it is 100% effective.
It is not recommended for mature adults.
Caponisation
It is the practice of making male birds lose their male characteristics by use of hormones.
Hormones used include stilboestrol which is injected into the birds when they are one day old and female hormones implanted beneath the skin at the neck.
Birds which have lost their male characteristics in this way are referred to as capons.
Management During Parturition
Parturition is the act of giving birth to fully grown foetus.
Management of a cow during parturition
Separate the cow from the others.
Keep a close watch in case of any complications.
If necessary to provide assistance, wash your hands clean with soap and water containing an antiseptic.
Wipe mucus from the nostrils of the calf.
Allow the mother to lick the calf dry or wipe with a clean cloth.
Cut the umbilical cord and disinfect it by applying iodine.
Move the calf to a warm pen.
Let the calf suckle enough colostrum/assist the calf to suckle.
Provide the mother with enough and clean water.
Weigh and record the birth weight of the calf.
Consult a veterinarian in case the afterbirth is retained for more than 48 hours.
Parturition in Sheep
It is referred to as lambing.
Gestation lasts 21 weeks (150 days) after conception.
The ewe lamb naturally without any problem.
If complications arise the ewes should be assisted.
Signs of Parturition in Sheep
Udder becomes full.
Teats are bright red in colour.
Restlessness and bleating.
Slackening of the hip muscles.
After these signs ‘are seen the ewes should be separated from the others.
The normal presentation is forelegs and head first.
After birth the mother should be allowed to lick the lamb to ensure the coat is dry.
There are 2 types of lambing management
a) Pen lambing- pregnant ewes are put together in one paddock but are separated as they lamb.
b) Drift lambing- pregnant ewes are kept together but are separated after showing signs of lambing.
Reasons why lambs can be disowned by their mothers.
Parturition in Goats
It is referred to as kidding.
It takes place 150 days after conception.
Nannies carrying twins, kid a few days earlier.
Kidding nannies should be kept in a clean dry place which should be well sheltered.
Signs of parturition are similar to those of ewes.
Kidding nannies should be kept with another female for company.
Parturition in Pigs
It is referred to as farrowing.
Gestation period 113-117 days ( 4 months).
Signs of Farrowing
The sow becomes restless.
There is enlargement of the vulva .
Muscles on each side of the tail slacken.
There is loss of appetite.
The udder and the teats become enlarged.
The sow collects bedding material in one comer to build a nest.
Milk present in the teats 24 hours before farrowing.
After the signs are seen;
Farrowing takes about 2-6 hours under normal conditio
An attendant should be there to assist the mother and piglets.
Ensure the removal of the after birth to prevent the sow from eating it.
The sow should be fed well and given plenty of clean water.
Parturition in Rabbits
It is referred to as kindling.
It takes place 28-32 days after conception.
Provide a nesting box and plenty of dry soft beddings in the hutch towards the fourth week of gestation .
Signs of Parturition
The doe plucks off the fur from her body.
Uses the fur to build a nest about 3-10 days earlier.
BEE KEEPING (Apiculture)
Bee keeping is the practice of rearing bees for honey production.
IMPORTANCE OF BEE KEEPING.
i) Production of honey which is a high energy feed, sweetener, medicinal.
ii) The honey and the bees wax are sold to earn income.
iii) They require little capital and land to keep.
iv) Bees are good pollinators for many crops.
Types of Bees.
a) African wild bee.
b) European bee.
Characteristics of African wild bee.
– well adapted to local weather conditions.
– it can fly for long distances to look for nectar.
– it is resistant to bee diseases.
– it is more active in the search of food and water and also protection of the hive.
– it is vicious if manhandled.
Characteristics of the European bee.
– more gentle and large.
– less active and vicious.
– it is susceptible to diseases that attack bees.
The Bee Colony.
It is made up of 3 types of bees namely:
a) The Queen.
– she lays eggs.
– she ensures the members of the colony live together by production of a pheromone.
b) The Drones.
– they mate with the queen.
– they help to cool the hive by flapping their wings to create free circulation of air.
c) The Workers bees.
– they feed the queen, the drones and the brood.
– protect the hive from intruders.
– collect nectar, pollen, trees resins, gums and water.
– build combs and seal the cracks and crevices in the hive.
– clean the hive.
– make honey and beeswax.
Sitting the Apiary.
Factors to consider
i) Availability of water ,beehives should be located near water sources.
ii) Availability of flowers to supply nectar.
iii) A sheltered place to protect the bees from strong sun and wind.
iv) away from disturbances, e.g roads.
v) away from human beings and livestock i.e homesteads, pastures and busy roads.
TYPES OF BEEHIVES
a) Log Hive.
(Diagram)
b) Box Hive.
It is made of sown timber cut to a length of one metre.
c) Kenya Top Bar Hive (KTBH).
It is made of a series of bars arranged to form the top of the hive.
– A top bar can be replaced with the queen excluder to restrict the queen from laying eggs on all the top bars, thus ensuring high quality honey which is not mixed with brood.
Parts of The Kenya Top Bar Hive.
Top bars (26 – 27)
Wooden end pieces.
Side pieces.
Bottom piece
Top cover – made of corrugated iron sheets.
Wire loops- to suspend the hive above the ground.
ADVANTAGES OF KTBH.
– the top bars can be removed for inspection of the combs and replaced.
– honey combs can be removed without disturbing the brood.
– honey is of high quality as it is harvested without brood combs.
– more wax is harvested as combs are not returned to the hive.
– the hive is easy to construct and repair.
– the hive is cheap to build and does not require expensive equipment to extract honey.
– a queen excluder can be used to separate honey from brood.
Tools used in the construction of a KTBH and their uses.
i) tape measure – to get the required sizes of timber.
ii) tin snips – to cut iron sheets.
iii) jack plane – smoothening timber surface.
iv) claw hammer- to drive and remove nails.
v) back saw/tenon saw – fine cutting of top bar edges.
vi) wood chisel – to make entrance holes for bees.
vii) mallet – to drive wood chisel.
viii) hand saw – to cut timber to the required size.
ix) pliers – to cut small wires.
x) wooden mallet – for straightening metal sheets.
c) The Langstroth Hive.
It is similar to a box hive but designed with separate chambers for the brood and the honey.
Stocking The Hive.
It is the act of encouraging bees to enter an empty hive or actually putting them in it.
Methods used include:
a) use of swarm net.
b) use of a catcher box – a small hive which is placed where it is likely to attract bees.
c) placing a hive in a permanent place and waiting for swarming bees to occupy it.
Materials Collected by Bees.
i) Nectar.
ii) Pollen.
iii) Propolis.
iv) Water.
Routine Management
Feeding
Normally bees are self-sufficient in providing their food from the honey they make.
However, during the dry season, their feeding should be supplemented by providing a solution (syrup) of sugar water or giving molasses.
This should be placed strategically so that it is easily accessible to the bees.
Reasons for Feeding Bees.
a) To maintain the colony. Well fed bees do not have the tendency to swarm or leave the hive.
b) To encourage multiplication. A well fed queen breeds regularly.
c) To supplement what bees get from flowers. This is done during dry seasons.
Parasites
Ants
Wax moths
Bee louse
Honey badger
Control of Parasites
Use of physical barriers such as Vaseline/grease to control ants.
Smoke the hive using a smoker that has some creosote to control bee louse.
Suspend the hive to control honey badgers.
Burn infected combs to control wax moths.
Avoid contact between a plant and the hive to control ants.
Diseases and Control
African bees are seldom attacked by diseases.
The diseases include Acarive and American foul brood.
They are controlled through proper feeding of bees ,and proper construction of hives to prevent damp conditions in the hive.
Swarming of Bees.
This is a process by which a new bee colony is formed when the queen leaves the colony with a large group of worker bees.
Reasons for swarming/absconding.
– shortage of food and water.
– outbreak of diseases and parasites/presence of predators.
– damage of brood/frequent disturbances.
– lack of adequate ventilation/overheating.
– dampness and bad smell.
– sick or infertile queen.
– overcrowding.
– loud noises.
When a new queen is prepared, a cluster of bees take the queen and the drone for the first flight. The first flight when mating takes place is known as the nuptial flight.
Sometimes a cluster of bees decide to leave the hive because of unfavourable conditions. This is called absconding.
Precautions to take when handling bees.
– Always approach the hive from the back.
– Use a sharp object to scrap off a bee sting.
– Start opening the top bars when they are docile.
– Avoid provoking bees, e.g. frightening them,else they get wild.
– Be in the right attire when handling bees.
Right gear when handling bees.
– A veil.
– An overall.
– A smoker.
– Gum boots.
– Hand gloves.
Harvesting Honey
Factors to consider;
Stage of ripening: Honey must be harvested when it is fully matu
Season of the year: Harvested at the end of the rainy season.
Equipment Used When Harvesting Honey.
– Bee brush – for brushing off bees from the honey combs.
– Hive tool – tool remove the top bars.
– Hive knife – to cut combs with honey.
– Honey container – to receive honey containing combs.
– Smoker – used to puff smoke into and around the hive.
– Container cover – for keeping off bees from the honey container.
– Protective clothing – to prevent attack by bees.
Procedure of honey harvesting.
Approach the hive quietly.
Puff smoke around the hive and then through the entrance. The smoke makes the bees to start eating honey thus becoming heavy and inactive.
Lower the hive to the ground.
Remove the top bars one by one using hive tool.
Shake off the bees or brush them off using a bee brush.
Cut light coloured combs from the top bars using a hive knife. Put them in a clean container.
Leave a 3 cm strip of comb on the top bar.
Place back the bars and do not disturb the brood.
Return the hive to its position.
Reasons why honey harvesting should not be done at night.
– many bees are killed.
– bush fires may start.
– honey may get contaminated.
Honey Processing
Using heat in a water bath to melt the honey.
procedure
– heat some water in a sufuria.
– put honey combs in an enamel basin or any other container which is not made of iron.
– put the container with honey combs on the boiling water.
– heat until most of the honey melts.
– separate the melted honey from the combs by straining through a muslin cloth.
– keep the honey in a container to cool.
– remove the wax layer that may form on the surface of the honey.
Crushing and straining.
The honey combs are crushed and strained using a muslin cloth.
Using a centrifugal extractor.
Honey is extracted from the combs using a rotational force.
Factors determining the quality of honey.
i) method of harvesting used.
ii) time of harvesting, e.g.day or night.
iii) maturity of the honey at the time of harvesting.
iv) method of processing honey.
v) source of nectar that is used in making of honey.
Wax Processing.
– put combs whose honey has been extracted into a basin.
– add water to the basin.
– heat the mixture until the wax melts.
– strain the mixture through a muslin cloth.
– squeeze the residue strongly to force the wax out.
– cool the mixture overnight.
– drain the water and remove any foreign materials.
– re- melt the wax over a water bath and put it in a clean container.
Uses of Wax.
i) manufacture creams ,ointments, candles shoe and floor polish.
ii) in dentistry to make teeth impression.
iii) in laboratories, in dissection of small insects.
iv) in pharmaceutical, it is used to make pill coatings.
Precautions When Handling Bees
Avoid excessive smoking.
This kills the brood and lowers quality of the honey.
Use protective clothing to avoid sting.
Protect the hive from rain water.
Use clean equipment and containers to avoid contamination of the honey.
Use recommended method of extracting honey.
Use recommended type of hive such as Kenya top bar hive.
Fish Keeping (Aquaculture)
Introduction
The rearing or keeping of fish is called fish farming and is normally carried out in specially prepared ponds.
importance of fish farming.
– sold to earn income.
– source of protein.
– fish act as predator to mosquito larvae.
– source of raw materials for manufacture of livestock feeds.
– it requires little land.
– makes fish readily available to people far from natural sources.
Types of fish reared in Kenya.
– fresh warm water fish, e.g. tench, bass, carps, blue gill, Nile perch, cat fish and tilapia.
– fresh cold water fish, e.g.trout. It requires flowing water.
Requirements for Fish Farming.
– water supply: a permanent source of clean and free flowing to ensure enough oxygen supply.
– slope of land: should be a gently sloping to allow free flow of water.
– type of soil: clay soil is the best because of its ability to retain water for a long time.
– availability of a reliable source of fingerlings (young fish).
Establishing a Fish Pond.
a) choose the site where water flows gently from the source.
b) map out/ mark the site using pegs.
c) clear the site remove all vegetation from the pond site.
d) dig out the pond so that its 0.5 m deep on the upper side and 1.5 m deep on the lower side.
e) construct a dyke to contain water inside the pond.
f) construct the inlet and outlet.
g) plant vegetation on the dykes to hold soil firmly.
Major parts of a fish pond.
i) Inlet- it provides the pond with fresh water from the source. A screen of fine mesh is made across the inlet to prevent the entrance of undesirable or strange fish species.
ii) Outlet- it is located at the bottom of the deeper end and is used for draining water during harvesting.
iii) Spillway- it is used to allow excess water back to the river. It is made at the top of the dyke on the lower side of the pond. It prevents water from overflowing the dyke.
Stocking the fish pond.
It refers to the introduction of fingerlings into the fish pond.
They are transported in oxygenated containes
They are introduced into the pond by lowering the container into the water and tilting it to allow them to swim away.
Care and maintenance of the pond.
Are activities carried out on the pond after draining the pond. They include:
a) repairing the dyke or any structure on it.
b) clean the pond and remove any foreign particles.
c) plant grass where necessary.
d) remove any silt.
e)remove any undesirable vegetation.
f) unblock inlets and outlets.
Management Practices to Ensure Maximum Harvest of Fish
Control of stocking rate, that is to, have the recommended population of fish in a pond at anyone time.
Harvest at the correct maturity stage.
This is done by using the fishing net with correct mesh sizes to avoid catching the fingerlings.
Avoid water pollution in the ponds which may poison fish.
Remove any weed or grass growing on the pond lining.
Restocking after normal harvesting.
Ensure adequate supply of food in the pond.
Water in the ponds should be kept in motion to facilitate aeration.
Maintain appropriate depth (level) of water in the pond by regulating the flow of water in and out of the pond.
Control predators and/or thieves by fencing off the pond.
Drain and refill ponds with fresh water as necessary.
Fertilizing the pond to enhance growth of the planktons.
Lime the pond regularly because:
– it acts as a disinfectant against nematodes.
– it reduces the acidity of the water.
– it causes silt to settle at the bottom of the pond.
Cropping of fish.
Is the removal of only those fish that have reached market size leaving the younger ones to grow further.
Methods used include:
i) use of baskets.
ii) use of spears.
iii) use of hook and line.
iv) draining the pond.
v) use of seine net.
Advantages of using seine nets
– only the marketable size of fish are caught.
– fish are not injured.
– it ensures a large number of fish are cropped.
Harvesting Fish
is the removal of all the fish from the pond. It is done as follows:
Close the inlet to stop the inflow of water.
Cropping is done to remove all the big fish using a seine net .
Open the outlet to allow water to flow out.
Catch the baby fish using a scoop net and put them in a holding pond.
Drain the pond completely.
Leave the pond for 2 – 4 weeks to dry out, and then refill with fresh water and re- stock.
Handling fish after harvesting
Maintenance of the Fish Pond
Repairing the dyke or any structure on it.
Cleaning the pond and removing foreign materials.
Planting grass where necessary.
Removing un desirable vegetation.
Removing the silt.
Fish Preservation
Practices before preservation:
Clean the fish to remove mud and any worms.
Removing scales and slime.
Opening the fish on the side to remove the gut and the intestines referred to as gutting. .
Cleaning the abdominal cavity thoroughly.
Keeping fish in open containers.
Methods of Preservation
Freezing
Salting
Sun drying
Smoking
Appropriate Handling of Livestock During Management
Physical beating should be avoided.
Structures which help in restraining animals should be used whenever applicable.
The correct methods of securing and casting animals should be used.
Use as little force as possible.
Equipment such as ropes, halters, lead stick and bull rings are used to handle animals appropriately.
Farm Structures
Introduction
Farm structures are physical constructions on the farm used to increase efficiency in production.
Accessibility. Should be easy to reach from most parts of the farm.
Security: safe from predators, thieves and trespassers.
Drainage/topography: to prevent the structures from being destroyed by water. Damp conditions also encourage disease infection s.
Direction of prevailing wind to prevent draught in some structures and bad odour from drifting to the farm.
Relationship between the structures: to have related structures close to each other to save time and labour.
Proximity to social amenities.
Farmer’s taste and preference.
Site preparation
It involves clearing of bush,grass, vegetation and levelling the ground.
Materials for Construction
Structural Materials and Use
Factors which determine the type of materials to use are;
durability of the material
strength of the material.
use of the structure in relation to the material.
availability of the material.
workability of the material.
suitability to the prevailing weather conditions.
cost of the material.
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Stones and Bricks
Advantages
Stones and bricks are durable, easy to disinfect, resistant to weather and insects decay and are easily available.
Disadvantages
They are bulky and require skilled labour to make them.
Plastic and Synthetic Materials
These include;
glass,
asbestos fibre
polythene materials.
Advantages
Light,
cheep depending on quality,
easy to disinfect,
can be moulded into any shape,
are durable,
cannot be destroyed by insects and fungus
are water-proof.
Disadvantages
Are easily destroyed,
fragile,
very expensive
require skilled labour.
Wood (Timber)
Advantages
They are workable,
cheap,
can be re-used
are fairly strong.
Disadvantages
They can catch fire easily,
decay if exposed to water
are affected by fungus and insects.
Concrete
Is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water
e.g. in making blocks the ratio is 1:2:3; one part cement, two parts sand and three parts aggregate.
Uses
Making posts for fencing.
Making walls and floor of buildings.
Making gabions and water channels to prevent erosion.
Making water troughs.
Advantages
These materials are;
durable, workable,
easy to disinfect,
cheap to maintain,
fire resistant
Disadvantages
These materials are ;
expensive,
require skilled labour,
bulky,
cannot be reused
Animal handling structures
The crush –used when doing following activities;
Spraying livestock to control ticks,
milking,
examining sick animals,
artificial insemination,
treating animals, eg drenching, vaccination,
dong routine jobs such as dehorning, identification marks,
The spray race-used in the control of ticks by spraying livestock with acaricides
Dips
Are used to control ticks. They are of two types namely the plunge dip and machakos dip.
a) Plunge dip
It ensures that animals plunge or dive into the acaricide solution getting completely immersed.
Factors to consider when sitting a cattle dip.
– availability of water.
– drainage of the place. It should not have a natural depression.
– availability of enough space to allow the construction and disposal of waste.
– centrally located to prevent animals walking long distances.
Roles of the various parts of a plunge dip.
i) collecting/holding yard.
– it holds animals awaiting dipping.
– the floor is made of stones or rough concrete to enhance removal of mud from the hooves.
ii) footbath
– it washes animal hooves to remove mud.
– it also contains a chemical solution to control foot rot.
iii) the jump.
– it is a narrow entrance that allows animals to jump into the dip tank one at a time.
Farm Buildings
Factors to be considered in site selection;
Security
Nearness to a source of water
Topography
Direction of the prevailing wind
Direction of the sun
Personal whims/tastes and preference
Nearness to means of communication.
Types of farm buildings
Houses for farm animals.
Stores for farm produce.
Stores for equipment, tools and supplies.
Buildings for growing crops e.g green house.
Building for processing plant e.g milk plant.
Parts of a building
The foundation,
The walls,
The roof
Include;
kingpost,
rafters,
struts,
tie beam,
rafter batten
Include;
concrete floor,
foundation wall,
PVCsheet (damp-proof course)
the compacted fill (hard core).
Fences
Importance of Fence in a Farm
Keep out intruders to the farm,
Define the boundary lines of the farm.
Paddocking offields to make rotational grazing possible.
Live fences serve as windbreaks.
Fences are used in mixed farming to protect crops from. damage by livestock.
Fences add aesthetic values to the farm.
It is easy to control breeding.
It is easy to isolate sick animals from the rest of the herd.
Types of Fences
Dead fences.
Barbed wire fences.
Electric fence.
Concrete fence.
Chicken wire fence (mesh wire fence).
Woven wire fence (chain link).
Wooden fence.
Fencing Practice
Materials include;
wires,
staples,
nails,
posts,
droppers
concrete materials.
Size of posts:
General purpose 2.5m by 25cm in diameter
Strainer units and corner posts 3m by 30cm in diameter:
Distance between the posts:
3m between posts, 10m if droppers are to be used.
200m between strainer units.
Depth of holes – 60cm.
Gate Posts, Gates and Strainer Units
Gates should be hung on posts separate from the fence.
Mechanical implements for example tractors require 4.0-4.5m width of gate.
Entrance gates for pedestrians can be accommodated within the fence.
Steps in Fencing
Locate the corners
Clear the fencing area.
Mark gates, strainers, pass places and standards by pegging.
Dig holes to proper depths.
Fix the standard posts.
Firm around posts or apply concrete.
Fix wires on posts.
Fix the droppers.
Agricultural Economics II
(Land Tenure and Land Reforms)
Introduction
Land is an important factor of production.
Without land it is impossible to practice the agricultural business.
Howeverthe efficiency of utilization of land is influenced to a large extent by the condition of holding the land.
Land Tenure
Land tenure is defined as the possession of the legal rights to the use of land.
Various kinds of rights to the use of land give rise to different tenure systems.
Land Tenure System
All land tenure systems fall into two major classes, namely:
Collective Tenure Systems
This includes:
Communal Tenure Systems
This involves the possession of rights over land by the whole community.
It works quite well under conditions of unlimited, land res
Advantages of Communal Tenure
Landless problem does not exist.
Land is not fragmented.
Allows for free movement of animals in search of better pastures and water.
Promotes community spirit among the members.
Disadvantages of Communal Tenure
No incentive among the users to conserve the land resources.
Everybody strives to maximize returns from the land without the drive to invest, for example, in terms of soil conservation and maintenance of soil fertility.
There is a tendency of overstocking and continuous cropping; which leadsto soil erosion and loss of land productivity.
As a result of communal grazing of livestock, it is impossible to improve livestock through;
controlled breeding,
proper feeding,
disease and parasite control.
Since there is no title deed, (certificate of ownership) it is virtually impossible to secure loans to develop the land.
Co-operative Tenure System
This category includes various collective arrangements under the government or other authorities.
Farmers voluntarily group together and buy land which they subsequently operate on co-operative basis.
Examples are co-operative ranches.
Advantages of Co-operative Tenure
No land disputes.
Labour is well utilized.
Profit is distributed according to the number of shares.
Resource use is enhanced for high production.
Disadvantages of co-operative tenure.
Incase of poor management everybody will loose.
No individual title deed hence cannot secure loans.
State ownership
Land is owned by the whole state and is refered to as government land.
Examples in Kenya;
Areas not allocated to individuals
Land under local county councils/cities and towns
Land under forest,game reserve and parks,land for infra-structure and public utility
Advantages of state ownership
Generation of income for the state
All the citizens benefit from whatever comes out of the land.
Disadvantages
Non-competitive in terms of production
No individual motivation when working on the land.
Individual Tenure system
The various forms of individual land tenure are;
Owner operator,
Plantation and Concestion,
Land-lordism/Tenancy
Owner operator
This category includes all persons who operate on land to which they have absolute individual rights.
Examples are the majority of individual land owners in areas where demarcation and registration of land has taken place and title deeds issued.
Advantages
The owner is free to make permanent production plans.
The owner can pledge the land title deed to secure loans(credit) from lending agencies for further development
An individual is motivated to work harder than when under communal arrangement
Managerial failures usually affect small units of production and are therefore negligible.
It is easy for the owner to get agricultural advice.
Disadvantages
Cost such as machinery for processing may be too high for the individual owner
Innovation may be inadequate due to low levels of education.
Lack of capital to invest.
Plantation and concession
In this form of land tenure, the individual is usually a company or a corporation.
Most of them engage in the production of only one commodity
They are rigid in their production plans and in most cases labour is hired on wage basis.
Example are coffee, tea, sugarcane, sisal estates in Kenya.
Advantages
High production from the land hence high economic gains
Allows foreigners to use and develop land
No land disputes
Create employment for the local people
Generate government revenue through taxation.
Disadvantages
Individuals own large pieces of land while others are landless
Large areas of land may be left underdeveloped.
Foreigners may repatriate profit to their countries.
Landlordism and tenancy
The arrangement here involves the ownership of land by one individual or group of individuals (landlord) who lease it to another individual (tenant).
A legal lease specifies the length of time during which the tenure is operative;
and that serves as a security of tenure to the tenant.
The efficiency of production in this arrangement is greatly affected by the length of lease, its legal backing and rent payable.
Advantages
A person without land can get a chance to use land.
A landlord who cannot operate the land, for any reason, can still earn income by leasing it to a needy tenant.
It is a flexible arrangement; that is, it allows room for change of production plans should need arise.
Security of tenure gives the tenant incentive to invest depending on the length of tenure.
Disadvantages
Poor land use and low production if the tenant does not have enough funds to improve on land.
Tenants cannot produce long term crops,
Landlords can exploit the tenants by overcharging.
Lack of incentives to improve land by the tenants since it does not belong to them.
Land Reforms
Definition
Land reform is any organized action designed to improve the structure of land tenure and land use.
Forms of Land Reform
Land Consolidation
This means bringing or putting together, into one piece; fragmented parcels or pieces of land scattered over a large area.
The objective of land consolidation are :
To save on time spent while moving from one piece of land to another.
To facilitate effective and efficient farm planning.
To create an incentive among land operators to invest on and develop land.
To facilitate mechanization and improve production through efficiency.
To improve level of production through effective supervision of the labour force and sound farming methods,
Land Fragmentation and Sub-division
This is the subdividing of a (large) piece of land into smaller portions.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to sub-divide land for the following reasons:
To sell part of the land.
The parent may wish to subdivide and distribute his land among the sons, daughters and other dependants.
The government may decide to subdivide large farms in order to settle landless citizens.
Land Adjudication and Registration
Land adjudication involves;
Establishing the legitimate ownership,
Measurements (to make permanent boundaries)
Recording of land details.
Once land has been adjudicated, and any disputes concerning the same land are settled,
It is then registered in the “Register of Land”.
And the owner is issued with a land title deed or certificate of legal ownership.
Importance of land title deed
The legal owner of the land has security of tenure and hence an incentive to invest and improve productivity.
A farmer can mortgage the land by offering land title certificate as a security to loaning agencies to secure capital to finance development projects.
If a farmer who cannot operate the farm, he can still earn income from it by leasing it.
Disputes concerning land boundaries and/or land ownership no longer arise.
Land Settlement and Resettlement
Definition
Land settlement means the occupation of land which was previously uninhabited.
Land resettlement, on the other hand, is the transfer of people from an already densely populated area to a sparsely populated one.
Objectives
To settle the landless citizens.
To relieve population pressure in densely populated areas.
To increase or promote agricultural productivity by farming on land that was previously unused or lying idle.
To create self-employment thus improving the living standards.
Land reclamation, especially by creating tsetse fly-barriers.
Soil and Water Conservation
Introduction
Soil and water are two very important natural resources in farming.
They should therefore be well maintained and used without wastage to sustain continuous production.
Water loss during the rainy season should be prevented and excess water conserved for use during scarcity.
Soil erosion must be controlled at whatever cost if soil is to be conserved.
Soil Erosion
It is the removal and carrying away of the top soil by the action of water or wind.
Factors Influencing Soil Erosion
Amount and intensity of rainfall.
The steeper the land the higher the velocity of surface runof
The higher the velocity of surface runoff the greater is its erosive power/effect.
Type of soil for example sandy soils are more easily detached and carried away than clayey soil
Soil depth;
The deeper the soil, the longer it takes to be saturated with
Land use:
Overstocking leads to bareness of the land and looseness of the soil.
Deforestation – indiscriminate removal of trees leads to exposure of soil to heavy rainfall and high te
Indiscriminate burning of vegetation exposes the soil to erosive agents.
Clean weeding leaves the soil bare.
Ploughing along the slope.
Monoculture or continuous cultivation.
Ground cover
Trees act as windbreakers.
Roots of vegetation cover hold the soil particles together.
Leaf fall act as mulch which reduces erosion.
Leaves of vegetation cover intercepts raindrops reducing their erosive power.
Agents of Erosion
Water – moving water has erosive power.
Wind – wind carries away soil.
Human beings – through man’s activities such as cultivation and mining.
Animals– through overgrazing and creating footpaths where soil erosion takes place.
Types of Erosion
Raindrop (splash) – displacement of the soil caused by raindrops.
Sheet – uniform removal of soil in thin layers from flat or gently sloping areas.
Rill – removal of soil from small bur well defined channels or rills.
Gulley – removal of soil from channels which become progressively deeper and wide
Riverbank Erosion– removal of soil along river banks by the river water.
Solifluction – gravitational flow of soil saturated with wa
Land slides– mass movement of rock debris and soil down a slope,
For example;
Slip movement of earth or rock masses for a short distance.
Debris slide – materials move at a greater speed.
Debris fall – movement of materials/debris along vertical cliff.
Rock fall – movement of rock down a very steep slope.
Rock slides – mass of rock materials that slide along a bedding plate, a joint or a fault face.
Soil Erosion Control Measures
Soil conservation measures can be classified into:
Biological or cultural control
Physical or structural control
Biological or Cultural Control Measures
These measures are applicable where land slope is between 2-12%.
Grass strips/filter strips;
These are narrow uncultivated strips along the contour left between cultivated strips.
Cover cropping;
The establishment of a crop that spreads out over the surface of the soil to provide it with a cover.
Contour farming ;
Carrying out all land operations along the contour.
Mulching ;
Covering of the soil with either organic or synthetic materials.
Proper cropping systems such as:
Crop rotation
Correct spacing
Inter-cropping
Ridging/furrowing
Strip cropping
Controlled grazing;
Proper stocking rate, rotational grazing.
Strip cropping;
Growing crops which give little ground cover in alternate strips with crops such as beans which have a good ground cover.
Afforestation/re-afforestation.
Afforestation – growing of trees where non-existed.
Re-afforestation– growing of trees where they have been cut down.
Agroforestry – land use that involves the growing of trees in combination with crops and pastures on the same piece of land.
Physical or Structural Control Measures
These are soil and water conservation measures which involve mechanical constructions on the earth.
They are used in areas of moderate slope between 13-55%.
They include:
Trash or stone lines;
These are rows of heaped crop’ residues or stones made along thecontours.
Filter strips;
It involves the growing of an open crop in the upper side of the slope followed by a dense crop to reduce speed of wate
This increases infiltration.
Terraces;
Are structures constructed across a slope to reduce the length of a slope thus reducing run-off.
Bench terraces;
Are constructed where the slope is 35-55%.
Tree crops are suitable for such areas.
Importance of a Bench Terrace: –
Reduces slope of the land.
Conserves soil moisture.
Better retention of soil fertility.
Narrow based terraces–Cannot allow cultivation by machines.
Broad based terraces – Is wide enough to allow cultivation by machines.
Graded terraces:
Have a drainage channel to lead off excess water to a vegetated plac
They should be about 100m in length.
Level terraces:
Have no outlet channels,
The aim is to have water infiltrating,
Hence no water can flow from the ends of the terr
Fanya juu:
A ridge made by digging a channel and throwing the soil uphill.
Fanya chini:
In this case the soil is heaped on the lower side of the channel.
Bunds: heaps of soil (earth) made along the contour.
Cutoff drains:
An open trench with an embankment on the lower side into which water from the farm dra
Water from the trench should be discharged into;
Natural waterways,
Artificial waterways,
Rocky ground
Grassland
Gabion/Porous dams:
Galvanized wire mesh boxes filled with stones which are built across slopes and gullie
Dams and reservoirs ;
Dams – barriers built across a river/waterway to hold and store water. It reduces speed of runoff.
Reservoirs – these are large storage ta
Ridging –heaps of soil to reduce the speed of water,
They retain the water for some time.
Water Harvesting Methods
Water harvesting and storage should be done during the rainy seasons to avoid wastage.
This should be done using the following methods:
Roof catchment– trapping and collection of rain water from roof tops.
Rock catchment – water is harvested by constructing a barrier on the lower side of a large impervious rock to trap surface runoff from the rock.
Weirs and dams.
Dam – a barrier constructed across a river or a dry valley so that it can hold water.
Weirs – barriers constructed across a river or a stream to raise the water level and still allow water to flow over it.
Ponds – water retention excavations’made to hold excess surface water.
Retention ditches/level terraces.-These are terraces constructed with blocked ends to retain water.
Micro-Catchments
A system of harvesting limited rainfall and storing the water in the ground for use by the planted crops.
Types of Microcatchments;
Triangular/V–shaped/Negarims;
V-shaped bunds measuring 25cm
Are built with soil from the excavated planting holes to direct runoff water towards the basin area around the base of each plant
Semi–circular bunds;
Formed around the growing plant to hold water around the plant.
Trapezoidal bunds;
Trapezoidal shaped bunds, which enclose a large area where the crops are grown.
Contour bunds/furrows;
These are furrows made along the contours between the rows of crops where agroforestry trees are intercropped with annual cro
Planting holes/pits;
These are extra large planting holes made and filled with dry plant materials before filling in with soil.
Use of Micro-Catchments
Slow down the speed of surface runoff.
Used during landscaping of the compound, parks and roadside nest areas.
Reclamation of land for food crop in dry areas.
Water collected and stored can be used for irrigation
Afforestation in dry areas.
Weeds and Weed Control
Introduction
Weeds cause heavy crop losses if not controlled.
Their control is important so as to maintain high quality and quantity produce.
Definition:
A weed is any plant growing where it is not required.
And whose economic disadvantages outweigh the advantages.
Harmful Effects of Weeds
Weeds compete with crops for nutrients, space, light and soil moisture.
Some weeds, for example, Striga spp are parasitic to cultivated crops such as maize.
Some weeds lower the quality of agricultural produce for example:
Mexican marigold gives undesirable flavour to milk if dairy cows feed on it.
Devils horsewhip, black jack, bristly fox-tail and others get attached to sheep wool thus lowering its quality.
Some weeds are poisonous to human beings and livestock for example:
Thorn apple (Datura stramonium)
Sodom apple (Solanum incanum)
Some weeds have allelopathic effects to cultivated crops.
Water weeds block irrigation channels.
Aquatic weeds such as Salvinia in Lake Naivasha and water hyacinth in Lake Victoria affect fishing.
Some weeds are alternate hosts for insects, pests and disease causing organisms for example:
Wild oat (avena fatua) is an alternate host for rusts.
Mallow (malva verticillata) is an alternate host for cotton stainers.
Weeds lower the quality of pasture for example:
Tickberry (Lantana camara)
Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus),
Manyatta grass (Eleusine jaegeri)
Some weeds irritate workers thus reducing the efficiency in which they are controlled for example:
Double thorn (Oxygonum sinuatum),
Stinging nettle (Urtica massaica) ,
Devil’s horse whip (Achyranthes aspera).
Factors Contributing to the Competitive Ability of Weeds
They produce large quantities of seeds for example pigweed and black jack.
Their seeds remain viable in the soil for a long time awaiting conducive germination conditions.
They have effective seed dispersal mechanisms.
Some weeds propagate by means of elaborate underground storage structures.
They are efficient in utilizing little moisture, nutrients and sunlight.
Some have short life cycles.
They have elaborate root systems for supporting the plant and absorbing nutrients and water.
Weed Classification
It is based on:
Life cycles for example:
Annuals – complete their life cycle in only one season.
Biennuals –complete their life cycles in two seasons o
Perennials – complete their life cycle in more than two seasons.
Morphology– leaf formation such as size, shape and venation.
Broad leaved weeds for example black jack, lantana, pig weed, oxalis and others.
Narrow leaved weeds for example couch grass, setaria, nut-grass, manyatta grass and others.
Habitat –some weeds are terrestrial (grow on land) while others are aquatic (grow on aquatic/marine conditions).
Weed Identification
Weeds are identified by their common (individual) names and botanical names.
They are named according to specific features or according to person who identified them.
Pests such as squirrels and rodents, unearth planted seeds, resulting in poor
Some pests like nematodes, termites and moles damage crop roots causing wilting and death of the crops.
They lower the quality and quantity of farm produce.
They increase the cost of production since farmers will incur expenses in purchasing chemicals to control them.
They transmit diseases to crops for example, aphids transmit streak virus disease in maize.
Chemicals used to control the pests cause pollution to the environment.
They exterminate the crop by feeding on them for example eating embryo of the seed.
Control of Pests
If pest population causes damage beyond tolerance then it is said to have reached economic injury level (EIL) hence control measures should be effected before this level.
Before any control measure is effected ,the following should be considered:
Know the life cycle of the pest.
Correct identification of the pest.
Correct assessment of the damage.
The weather conditions.
The value of the crop in question.
The cost factor of the control method.
Methods of Controlling the Pests
Cultural methods.
Physical/mechanical measures
Biological methods.
Chemical methods.
Integrated pest management.
Cultural Methods:
These are farming practices which aim at reducing the pest population by destroying the life cycle of the pests either by exposing them to adverse conditions or denying them food.
These include:
Timely planting to escape pest attack.
Timely harvesting.
Proper tillage.
Close season: this is the period when a susceptible crop is not grown in order to control a certain pest.
Trap cropping: These are crops which attract pests diverting them from the main crop. The trap crop is grown together with the main crop.
Crop rotation: It breaks the life cycle of the pest.
Planting resistant varieties: These are plants with natural protective mechanisms against pest for example hairy cotton against jassid bugs, goose necked sorghum against birds, high tillering in sorghum against shoot fly.
Field hygiene: This includes rogueing and removal of crop residues which harbour pests from field.
Alterations of environmental conditions, such as, creating a microclimate which is not conducive to pests for example open pruning in coffee.
Crop nutrition: application of fertilizers and manures to make the crop strong and able to escape pest attacks.
Destruction of alternate hosts, for example, weeds like mallow which harbour cotton stainers.
Use of clean planting materials. This helps to prevent introduction of crop pests.
Proper spacing: if well spaced some pests find it difficult to move from one plant to another.
Use of organic manure, for example, farmyard manure discourages eel worms (nematodes).
Chemical Control
Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides.
Pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigating.
Classification of Pesticides:
Pesticides are classified on the basis of:
Mode of Entry
Stomach – ingested by the pest together with the crop materials.
Contact – absorbed through the body tissues.
Fumigants – through the breathing mechanism.
Systemic – translocated to all parts.
Mode of Action
Respiratory poisons – interfere with breathing mechanisms.
Coagulants – cause the blood of the pest to coagulate.
Neurotoxins – act on the nervous system.
Protoplasmic poisons – cause the cells to disintegrate.
Target Pests
Insecticides – kill insect pests
Molluscicides – kill snails and slugs.
Rodenticides – kill rodents.
Nematocides – kill nematodes.
Formulation .
Dusts, granules and powders
Emulsifiable concentrates.
Miscible liquids.
Wettable powders.
Fumigants.
Factors That Affect the Efficiency of Pesticides
Concentration of the pesticides.
Weather conditions at the time of application.
Timing of application – efficiency is high if applied when the pest is most susceptible.
Persistence of the pesticide having long residual effect in the soil.
Resistance of the pests.
Advantages of Chemical Pest Control
Faster
Immediate results are achieved.
Low labour requirements.
Disadvantages of Chemical Pest Control
Expensive to buy.
Cause pollution to the environment.
Require skilled labour to apply.
Some pesticides may kill beneficial organisms and predators.
Some target pests may build up resistance.
Mechanical Pest Control/Physical
This involves the killing of the pests using physical methods.
Or creating physical barriers to prevent pests from getting into contact with the crops .
Example:
Flooding/irrigation; for example, moles are suffocated through flooding.
Use of lethal temperatures: either too cold or too hot.
Suffocation; commonly used in grain storage bins by being made air tight.
Trapping and killing, for example, rats.
Creation of physical barriers, such as, rat bafflers, sticky materials on tree trunks.
Proper drying: this makes them too hard to be destroyed by pests.
Scaring devices especially in rice plantations to control birds.
Use of explosives thrown at breeding places of birds to kill or scare them away.
Biological Pest Control
It involves the use of living organisms to reduce the pest population.
Predator Target Pest
Parasitic wasp——————-White fly in citrus, boll worms, stalk borers
Swelling of the affected parts usually the hindquarters, shoulders and chest or back.
Dullness.
Anorexia.
Grunting and grinding of teeth.
Animal stops chewing cud.
Control
Treating with recommended antibiotics.
Vaccinating using black quarter vaccine known as blanthax.
Burying the carcass deep or burning it completely.
Mastitis
Is an inflammation of the udder.
Animals attacked: Goats, cows, pigs and human beings.
Cause: Bacteria (Streptococcus spp. or Staphylococcus spp.)
Pre–disposing Factors:
Incomplete milking.
Injuries on the udder and teats.
Weak sphincter muscles of the teats allowing free flow of milk.
Symptoms
Milk is watery, blood stained or clotted.
Swollen udder
Control
Proper milking techniques.
Treatment by use of antibiotics.
Culling of animals which are often attacked.
Anthrax
Attacks all domestic animals.
Cause: Bacteria (Bacillus anthracis)
Symptoms
Sudden death.
High fever.
Grinding of the teeth.
Pneumonia
It is an inflammation of the lungs.
Animals attacked: Calves, kids, lambs, piglets and poultry.
Cause:
Bacteria (Mycoplasma mycoides)
dust
worms in the lungs.
Symptoms
Dullness.
Anorexia/loss of appetite.
Staring coat.
Emaciation.
Breathing rapidly.
Abnormal lung sounds when breathing.
Coughing if the chest is pressed.
Fluctuating body temperature.
Nasal discharge.
Control
Keeping young animals in warm pens.
Proper sanitation.
Isolation of the affected animals.
Treating using antibiotics.
Viral Diseases
Rinderpest.
Foot and mouth disease (FMD).
New Castle
Fowl pox
Gumboro
African swine fever
Rinderpest
Animal attacked: Cattle and wild game.
Cause: virus.
Symptoms
Harsh staring coat.
Rise in temperature.
Eye discharge (Lachrimation)
Diarrhoea and dysentery.
Ulcers in the mouth.
Foot and Mouth Disease
Animals attacked: Cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.
Cause: Virus .
Symptoms
Sharp rise in temperature.
Blisters in the mouth, hooves, udder and teats.
Loss of appetite.
Control
Vaccination.
Quarantine
nursing wounds with disinfectant.
New Castle
Animals attacked: Poultry.
Cause: Virus.
Symptoms
Difficulties in breathing.
Beaks remain wide open and necks are strained.
Birds become dull.
The birds stand with eyes closed all the time.
Anorexia/loss of appetite.
Nasal discharges which force the birds to shake their heads to clear it.
Birds walk with a staggering motion.
Paralysis of wings and legs may occur.
Birds have their beaks and wings down.
Birds produce watery greenish diarrhoea.
Birds lay soft shelled eggs.
Control
Killing all birds and burning them followed by cleaning and disinfecting the houses before bringing in new stock.
Vaccination should be done during the first 6 weeks and then 2-3 months later.
Quarantine.
FowlPox
Animals affected: Poultry.
Cause: A virus known as avian fox.
Symptoms
Two types of fowl pox with different symptoms.
Cutaneous type
Diptheritic type
The cutaneous type affects the skin and has the following signs:
Injuries on the combs and wattles, legs, vent and under the wings.
Loss appetite.
The diptheritic type affects internal membranes and has the following symptoms:
Injuries in the inside of the throat and mouth membranes resulting in difficult breathing and swallowing.
Eyes and nose produces a watery liquid.
Loss of appetite.
Dullness.
Emaciation.
Control
Killing all affected birds followed by proper disposal of their carcasses.
Vaccinating remaining healthy birds.
Gumboro
It is also referred to as poultry AIDS.
Animals attacked: Poultry.
Cause: A virus known as Birma virus.
Symptoms
The glands above the vent (bursa) become swollen.
Drop in egg production.
Birds develop respiratory distress.
Loss of appetite.
Low water intake by birds.
Loss of immunity making the birds more susceptible to opportunistic diseases.
Control
Vaccination.
Administering vitamins and especially B12.
African Swine Fever
Animals attacked: All domesticated pigs.
Cause: A virus known as Irido virus.
Symptoms
Fever.
Loss of appetite.
Depression/dullness.
Emaciation.
Coughing.
Nasal discharge.
Diarrhoea in serious conditions.
Control
Vaccination.
Quarantine.
Killing all affected animals and proper disposal of their carcasses.
Double fencing to keep wild animals away.
Nutritional Diseases/Disorders
Milk Fever
It is a non-infectious disease brought about by calcium deficiency in animals which have recently given birth.
Animals attacked: Cows, goats and pigs that have recently given birth.
Causes:
Due to low calcium levels in the blood.
Which leads to an increase in the magnesium and sugar level in the blood.
Mostly occurs in high producing cows in the first few months of lactation.
This is because these animals loose more calcium through milk secretion than they are getting from the diet.
Symptoms
Dullness.
Muscular twitching causing the animal to tremble.
Staggering as the animals move.
Animal falls down ands becomes unconscious.
The animal lies down on its side and the whole body stiffens.
Body functions such as urination, defecation and milk secretion stops.
Stomach contents are drawn into the mouth which later cause lung fever when breathing in.
Loss of appetite.
Treatment
Intravenous injection of soluble calcium salt in form of calcium boro-gluconate ,60gms dissolved in 500cc of water.
Keeping the animal in a comfortable position on its sternum.
Giving fresh water.
Note: The animals suffering from milk fever should not be given medicine orally for the following reasons:
It will not be able to swallow medicine.
The medicine may get into the lungs thereby promoting lung fever.
Control
Partial milking for the first 10 days.
High yielding cows should be given rations containing phosphorus and calcium.
Giving high doses of Vitamin D.
Bloat
Animals attacked: Cattle and sheep.
Cause: Accumulation of gases as a result of fermentation in the rumen.
Symptoms
The left side is blown up.
Sudden death.
Control
Relieve by use of trocar and cannula.
Chasing the animal around if noticed early.
Drenching by use of stop bloat.
Feeding ruminants with dry roughages during the wet season before grazing on lush
By Editorial Team
The Education News Hub Editorial Team is made up of vibrant and experienced editors. Brian Yano is an accomplished longtime Digital Media Journalist at Educationnewshub.co.ke with a great passion for research and fact-checking. He delivers engaging content across diverse topics, with a special interest in Education matters. On her part, Yvonne Kemunto is a journalist, dedicated to unraveling stories that matter. With a keen eye for detail and a passion for storytelling, she brings a fresh perspective to the world of media. Her commitment to detail and excellence shines through in every piece she crafts. Our newest member of the Editorial Team is Jennifer Mumbo. She is a Seasoned Multimedia Journalist with several years' experience; dating back to 2018. Jennifer has a passion for education, sports, tech, politics and entertainment. You can reach the editors at educationnewshub3@gmail.com.
