HISTORY SIMPLIFIED NOTES- FORM ONE HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
HISTORY SIMPLIFIED NOTESTHE MEANING OF HISTORY
History is an account of events that took place in the past. History may also be defined as a branch of knowledge which deals with past events of human beings and their response to their environment over the years.R.G Collingwood, in his book The Idea of History (OUP 1994) defined history as a “science concerned with the human actions in the past, pursued by interpretation of evidence for the sake of Human self knowledge.”
That history is a science because it involves finding out things about the past Humankind. For example, the origin of Man, why he was a toolmaker, why he domesticated animals and plants.
These are questions that provoke scientific curiosity.
The three definitions of History from the above are:
History is the past of anything; of earth, man, disease or animals
History is a branch of knowledge dealing with past events
History is a science concerned with past Human actions
Since History at secondary level is specifically concerned with the past as it relates to humankind and his response to his environment over the years, the working definition of history is therefore;
History is the endless story of mankind’s actions and events affecting him in the past.
Closely related to the term history is the term PREHISTORY.Prehistory refers to the unrecorded history- those activities that humans engaged in before writing and drawing were invented as ways of storing information. Such information is gained from songs, myths, stories, artifacts, fossils and the language of a people.
A historical event needs to have recorded evidence in order to be referred to as a historical fact
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Characteristics of historical events
They must have evidence.
Historical information must be written or unwritten.
Historical events only concern man.
Historical events dwell mainly on the past happenings.
Historical events must contain elements of truth.
The study of humankind’s past can be classified systematically into three;
Social history- dealing with the traditions, values and cultural practices of a people
Economic history; dealing with the means of livelihood of a people, such as hunting, gathering, agriculture and trade.
Political history; dealing with the control system in a society, for example maintenance of law and order, leadership and security.
THE MEANING OF GOVERNMENT
Derived from the verb govern, government means to exercise authority over. To rule or control. Or having power to direct or conduct the policies and public affairs of a country or an institution. In our study, the term government refers to a group of people within a state or a country given authority to organize, direct and control the affairs of the state or country.In Kenya, the government has three arms.
The legislature: – Commonly referred to as parliament, this is a law making arm of government.
It includes the National assembly and the president.
The executive: – this is the arm of government which implements laws. It includes the president, the cabinet and the civil service.
The judiciary: – this is the arm of government responsible for seeing that the laws made are constitutional, that they are followed and that those who break them are punished. It is commonly referred to as the courts.Jean Jacques Rousseau, in his book, The Social Contract, describes government as “an intermediate body set up by the subjects to ensure equity (fairness) and the execution of laws while maintaining social and political liberty”
In this sense, government is not dictatorial since its authority is derived from the people. People must however be free to choose their leaders, even remove those in power and replace them with others, in order to ensure the existence of the principal of fairness.
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
There are four forms of government:
Democratic government
This is a type of government in which rulers regularly seek public mandate through popular vote. Such governments are based on the principles of free and fair elections.
According to Abraham Lincoln, an American statesman, they are “governments of the people, for the people and by the people”.In such a government, freedoms and rights are provided for in the constitution that governs the law of the nation.
Aristocratic government
Aristos – best
Kratos – powers
An aristocracy is a form of government in which a group of people from the highest social class the royalty- in a society rule over others. Any member of the nobility can seek election or appointment to a government office while other citizens who are less privileged are there to be ruled.The King or Queen is the head of government while senior positions in the gover-nment are given to the privileged members from among the nobles. The nobles are considered superior to others human beings because of the wealthy family back-ground they are born into and their superior education. They are considered a rare breed of people.
Monarchical government
This is a form of government where democracy is practiced but aristocratical power is respected. Parliament is the supreme organ but the monarchy- the royalty that are in power be it the king or queen is retained as a tradition, and respected as head of state.
Monarchical governments are classified into two;Absolute monarchy: – which refers to the unrestricted power of the Head of State. The monarchy is dictatorial.
Constitutional monarchy;- The monarchical power , which is restricted is determ-ined by what is spelt out in the constitution. Such a system of government is found in Lesotho and Britain.
Dictatorial government
Dictatorship is a system of government where the ruler has total power over his subjects. Dictators are the sole authority where they rule. They make the law and execute justice and exercise their rule forcefully, suppressing their subjects at will. They curtail freedom of other subjects and impose their will over others.Examples of world dictators; Adolf Hitler of Germany who instigated the Germans into believing they were superior race and incited them against the Jews. Idi Amin of Uganda who ruled with a ‘rod of iron’
NB; the most ideal form of government is where the subjects go to the ballot to elect the people to lead them. Governments play the important function of maintaining law and order.
Importance of studying history
Importance of studying government
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT
There three main sources of information on history and government;
Unwritten sources
This refers to historical information which is not recorded in writing.Unwritten sources of historical information include oral traditions, linguistics (languages), Anthropology (culture) archaeology, paleontology and genetics.
Oral traditions
This refers to the practice of handing down historical information by word of mouth from one Generation to the next. This forms a very important source of historical information especially where exists a non-literate society who might not be able to read.
Oral traditions include folk tales, proverbs, songs and stories. Songs, proverbs folktales and stories told to a younger generation have been very instrumental in the passing of information from one generation to the other. For example, a song about our struggle for independence in Kenya passes very important information to the younger generation, who not yet had born at that time.
Advantages of oral traditions as a source of information
Disadvantages of oral traditions as a source of information
At times it is difficult to differentiate between what is real and what is imagined.
Linguistics
This refers to the scientific study of languages.
Historical linguistics is the study of language as it changes n the course of time. It seeks to trace the principles of language change and establish the current genealogical classification of a particular language. Such a study helps in discovering language form, content, vocabulary and historical experiences of the people who speak the language.
Distribution of language and relationship between languages is important to a historian. People who speak related languages may be assumed to have a common origin, be connected, or had been in close contact at sometime in the past.Variations between languages of the same family can show how long ago the break in contact occurred.
Advantages of linguistics as a source of information
Bantu groups, through migrations, these groups may not understand each other’s language today.
Limitations in the use of linguistics as a source of information
Anthropology
This is the study of human beings, their origin, development, customs, beliefs, and social attributes like music, dance, drama, and religious beliefs and practices.
Anthropologists have to live among the people under study in order to experience their way of life in order to understand and explain structures of societies, forms of social organization, institutions, descent, marriage, forms of government, systems of inheritance, religious customs and cultural values.The anthropological description of the beliefs and customs of a people will help the historian to determine the cultural past of the people
Advantages of anthropology as a source of information
Limitations in the use of anthropology as a source of information
Genetic studies
Genetics is the scientific study of the ways in which characteristics are passed from parents to their offspring. (The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.) It deals with the ay human beings adapted to the circumstances in their environment and utilized available plants and animals to meet their needs.When used in relation to pants genetic studies helps us trace the origin of various species by identifying them with the region where large numbers of them are found today. After this, interpretation of their movement is made. The appearance of new cultivated varieties can be identified with the people whose economy they form a part. Also, common genes or characteristics among a group of people may indicate some relationships.
Archaeology and paleontology
Archaeology is the study of man’s past through scientific analysis of the remains of material remains of his culture, e.g. weapons, tools, houses, clothing, utensils, paintings sculpture, pottery, coins, jewellery, cutlery, beads and work o arts.The archaeologist reconstructs the activities and way of life of people who lived in prehistoric times from various evidence remains of the material culture.Other items that can be used in archaeology include remains of charcoal and carbo-nized seeds, remains of cloth or garments, remains of dwelling laces.After studying the available artifacts, the archaeologist formulates his concept of a people’s civilization at the time the artifacts were used. The existence of artifacts in an area can enable the historian to deduce the material culture of the people who lived n the past.
Palaeontology is the scientific study of the evolution and structure of extinct plants and animals (fossils) through scientific examination of fossil remains.Historians and archaeologists work with natural scientists like paleontologists, geologists and ecologists and chemistry in discovering fossils, getting information about soil structure, interpreting man’s relationship to his environment and dating of fossils.
Methods used by archaeologists and paleontologists in discovering a historical site.
Advantages of using archaeology
Limitations of using archaeology
What things do archaeologists use to construct the activities of people who lived in pre-history times?
What problems face archaeologists in their work of re writing history using unwritten sources?
METHODS OF DATING FOSSILS
There are six methods through which scientists may use to arrive at the age of fossils.
These are periods that have been given names by paleontologists and geologists for the past ages. They are characterized by the successive type of pants and animals found, and the climatic changes.The recent period is the Holocene period which began 10,000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene.
They exist in two types:
(a) Radio- carbon dating
This method involves a measure of the rate of decay of carbon -14 in fossils and organic substances. Carbon -14 is a naturally existing radioactive element (isotope) of carbon of relative atomic mass fourteen and is found in the Carbon Dioxide which is present in the atmosphere.It is absorbed by plants and consequently by all living organisms during their lifetime. When plant or animal dies, absorption stops. Carbon -14 already absorbed begins to disintegrate at a fixed rate from the time of death. If the amount of carbon -14 still remaining in an organic sample can be measured and related to the content of the isotope in the modern plant or animal, the rate of decay will be known. The date at which the sample was buried will e known. The measurement tells us how long it is since the organism died.The unit of measuring is known as half-life- the number of years it takes for half the carbon -14 to decay.However the accuracy of radio-carbon dating is limited to up to 40,000 years ago.
(b) Potassium argon method
This is the method used to date volcanic ash. During volcanic eruptions, potassium is emitted. As soon as the potassium is deposited, the radio-active potassium-40 immediately begins to decay into the gas argon. It is assumed that the argon is retained in the mineral or rock unless there is earth movement.Given that the rate of decay of potassium is known, the amount of argon-40 compared with the amount of potassium, gives a direct measure of age.Because of the slower rate of decay of potassium than the decay of carbon-14, the potassium –argon method is used for dates ranging from hundreds of millions of years to 30,000 years.Recently methods have been developed for measuring the potassium and argon simultaneously on the same sample using nuclear.
This is the study and interpretation of the layers of rock successively deposited at one place. It is useful in determining dates for areas affected by sedimentation. Through Stratigraphy, a geological time-chart is obtained showing which rock was formed earlier or later.
This is a method developed for dating Pleistocene samples. The ages of glass and other mineral objects estimated by observing the tracks made in them by the fission fragments of uranium nuclei they contain. It requires that Uranium must be present. The age obtained dates from the time the object solidified. This method has been proved reliable by being able to provide same reading from a sample of glass with a lump of pumice from Olduvai Gorge corresponding with the potassium –argon dates from the same layer.
Lexico-statistics is the statistical study of the vocabulary of languages with the intentions of determining their ages and their historical links with other languages.The study is based on the assumption that all languages have a basic vocabulary which will change slowly at a common rate for all languages at all times. The existence of reconstructed vocabulary of the parent language in derivative languages shows the
Relationship between the two
Glottochronology, a subdivision of Lexico-statistics, attempts to establish that languages are historically related .by this method, there is an effort to express rates of language development by formulae precise enough to enable dates when change occurred to be calculated
Through a system of averaging, the length of a generation can be determined for a
Particular society and dates estimated for events associated with certain generations.
If the number and names of successive age-sets are remembered, the same system of averaging can be used.
Advantages of using unwritten sources of information on history and government
Written sources
These are sources in which letters or any other symbols have been put on the surface for the purpose of communication. They include books, archives, constitutions, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies, annual reports, periodical and paintings.
Written sources are classified into two;
Archives are a collection of historical documents or records, especially those carrying classified information of a government or an organization, which after a period of time are accessible to the public.
They are also places where government, public and other historical records are kept.-they are resource centres for information.A manuscript is an author’s handwritten or typed text that has not yet been published. Early manuscripts include stone tablets and scrolls. The bible and Quran are based on these two.
They include books, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, documentaries, dairies and annual reports. Photographs employ both electronic and printing processes but basically fall under printed sourcesWorks of fiction such as films plays and novels are important source of historical information. (Fiction is literature in form of prose, especially novels that describe imaginary events and people).Since work of fiction involves feelings and emotions, they can give more information about history. Also reading good historical novels arouses interest in history and gives the reader intellectual fulfillment. Newspapers convey new or fresh events, which with the passing of time becomes history.
Advantages of written records
Limitations
Electronic sources
These include microfilms, films, videos, radio, and television
Microfilms
These are films on which extremely small photographs (microphotography) of documents and printed matter are stored. They are tinny but when magnified can be clearly read.
The importance of converting documents into microfilms is for preservation purposes and saving storage spaces.
Radio
This is an authoritative source of historical information that captures words and emotions of an event as I was. For example radio news on the president’s speeches gives listeners the actual information on national matters. However, radio lacks the vividness found in television and films.
Audio- visual sources
These include television, films and videos.
Films carry indisputable historical facts as action is recorded live. They also give better understanding of some aspects of the social history of a given people with regard to their music, dress and leisure activities. Videos and films make the past come alive.
However, since films are acted, they can sometimes be unrealistic as they may not present facts but an exaggerated version of an event.Television on its part gives good historical information as it depicts the situation as it was.
Databanks and databases
Databanks are large stores of organized information which can be accessed in number of ways. E.g. if it is a book, information can be accessed through an index, a table of content or by browsing.Electronic databases are stored in computer and facilitate easy and faster retrieval of information. One can search for information by use of a number of search terms.Information in a database can be printed when required but can also be accessed instantly on computer.
Limitations of using electronics as a source of information in history and government
EARLY MAN
In the study of early man, we will seek to answer questions that human beings have always sought to answer about how they appeared on earth, whether they were created and where the universe came from.
The origin of Human Beings
A number of theories have been put forward to explain the origin of human beings.
The Creation theory
The Jews, Christians and Muslims recognize the creation story as narrated in the first book of bible and in Qur’an. That the whole universe was created by god. That God also created man, woman and all living things and all non-living creatures. Man was created in God’s own image and woman created to provide man with companionship.
The Mythical Theory
Among African communities, there are myths about their origin all of them pointing to the fact that the first man was created by God.
Examples:
Among the Agikuyu, their God (Ngai) created the first man, Gikuyu. He the provided him with a wife, Mumbi. He gave him land at Mugurwe wa Gathanga.
One of the myths among the Nandi state that the first two people, male and female came from the knees of a giant man, when the knees began swelling and later burs for the two to come out from each of the either knees.
The Evolution Theory
Charles Darwin, an English man living between 1809 and 1882 questioned the acceptance of the creation theory. Through scientific expedition to South America and the pacific islands in 1831, he developed interest in fossils (remains of plants and animals found beneath the earth’s surface.) in 1859; he published his ideas in a book titled The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The ideas enlisted instant battles from the Christian fraternity save for one supporter, Huxley.
Clearly the theory of evolution was not accepted but it helped to make people aware of the new ideas concerning the origin of man.
What is evolution?
Evolution can be defined as the process of change in living organisms over a number of years, frequently involving the beginning of new species from earlier species.
According to Charles Darwin, man transformed from simple life slowly over millions of years through environmental mutation, natural selection, isolation and adaptation.
Mutation was a stage of abrupt change.
Natural selection is an instinct by which the stronger species out compete the weaker for resources.
Adaptation is where the surviving species isolate themselves from others as they adapt to new environment through body changes and technological changes e.g. ability to grow crops and make shelter.
Darwin’s theory of natural selection comprises the following points.
All organisms or creatures are uniquely different and this uniqueness is based on heredity factors which an organism has from birth.
Although many young organisms are produced, few manage to develop to maturity.
The organisms that manage to grow to maturity and reproduce are those that are able to constantly adapt to the existing environment.In view of the limited resources, even after mutation, Darwin argued that only the fittest organisms survive as the weak species become extinct. This theory is popularly known as ‘survival for the fittest’.According to Darwin, isolation and adaptation is the final stage in the evolution process. Having survived through mutation and natural selection, the merging species increase in number. This leads to search for basic needs and in the process a species may be isolated from the rest and then finally adapt to the new environment.The theory of evolution holds that Humans belong to the animal kingdom and that man has evolved over the years. Man is a primate just as apes like gorillas, chimpanzees and monkeys. However, man belongs to the family of hominidae, while apes belong to the family of pongidae.
Man according to Darwin developed over the years from his ape-like ancestors.
Evolution and adaptation of man
The earliest Mammals lived on trees for two reasons;
Man evolved from this kind of animals
Archaeological evidence points at East Africa as the cradle of mankind.
Reasons why East Africa is regarded as the place where man first evolved
Important archaeological sites found in East Africa
In Kenya; – Rusinga Island, Fort Ternan near Kericho, Kariandusi near Elementaita, Gambles cave, Olorgesaillie, Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Hyrax Hill and Njoro River cave.
In Tanzania; – Olduvai Gorge, Eyasi Simila, Apis Rock and Garusi
In Uganda; – Nsongezi, Napak, Magosi, Paraa, Ishanga, Mweya and Nyabusora
In Ethiopia; – Omo River Valley and Hadar.
Over a long period of time, man’s ancestors lived in thick forests. Later about 15 million years ago, the forests transformed into savanna grasslands causing man’s ancestors to change both physically and mentally so as to cope with the new environment.
The changes
As the forests disappeared, competition for food intensified and humans had to change their earlier eating habits. Some fossil evidence clearly give distinctive evidence of the break-off point between apes and hominids (mans ancestors.)The changes which Homo sapiens underwent as a break-off from apes to modern man.
530cm3. Homo erectus who lived later on had an improved brain capacity of between 775 and 1225cm3.
From apes to homo sapien sapiens
Between 40 and 25 million years ago, the first apes appeared on earth. The first man
(Austropithecus) appeared around 4.5 million years ago.
The following are the stages through which the evolution of man passed.
1) Aegyptopithecus – An Early African Monkey
~ Aegyptopithecus was reconstructed from a monkey like skull found at Fayum Depression in Egypt. He forms earliest evidence of probable man’s ancestors.
~ Its Teeth were those of a herbivore
~ It had a Small, about 4kg and was named Egyptian ape.
~ It was highly adapted to forest life. Had stereoscopic vision. It could jump skillfully from one tree to other using hands. It Dated 33 million years
2) Dryopithecus Africanus (proconsul)
~ Its Remains were found at Rusinga Island within Lake Victoria by Mary and Louis Leakey in
~ He had a quadrupedal movement like a chimpanzee. He had a Smooth forehead.
~ He had long teeth like other animals. The shape of his teeth and jaws indicated that He ate fruits. It is his remains that strengthen the belief that east Africa was the first homeland of mankind.
3) Kenyapithecus (Ramapithecus)
~ He is believed to have appeared between 15 and 12 million years ago
~ First remains found Fort Ternan in Kericho District, Kenya, in 1961 by Dr. Louis Leakey and Mary. Other fossils found at Samburu Hills, near Lake Baringo as well as in the Lake Turkana basin.
~ The equivalent species found in the Siwalikis Hills in northern India near New Delhi was named Ramapithecus
~ He had small canines and could occasionally walk on twos without falling.
~ The creature was small and weighed 36kg with bigger brains than earlier hominids.
4) Australopithecus (southern ape)
~ By 4-2m years ago a series of species known as australopithecines begin to appear. Perhaps it was the earliest homid closer to modern man.
~ The pelvis and leg were similar to that of modern humans.
~ They were bipedal and this was important in defence, grasp of objects and vision of an impending danger from a distance.
~ His Brain size was smaller than that of a human but larger than gorilla’s.
~ He was one of the most hairy hominid that ever existed.
~ He was Short but strong with a low forehead. Had large teeth and skulls
~ His remains were first discovered at Taung in Botswana by Raymond Dart in 1924.
~ The broken up skull found in East Africa at Olduvai Gorge in 1959 by Mary Leakey, was called Zinjanthropus- ‘Nut-Cracker man ‘since it had big jaws that suggest it kept on chewing.
~ Other fossils found in South Africa, Omo River Valley, Laetoli in Tanzania, near lakes Turkana and Baringo in kenya and L Natron
Four types of Australopithecines that have been identified
~ He is aged between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago and is believed to be one of the oldest
~ Evidence of his existence is obtained from the Reconstruction of Material consisting of 9 fossils from Kanapoi in Kenya and 12 fossils from Allia Bay in Kenya found by Dr. Meave Leakey, Dr. Allan Walker and the four fossil hunters (Kamoya Kimeu, Wambua Mangao, Nzube Mutiwa and Samuel Ngui.)
~ The fossil remains (comprising a lower jaw) were named A. Anamensis in August 1995 in a leading British Scientific journal.
~ He had relatively large canines.
~ The homid was aged between 3.9 and 3.0 million years ago. Its Name is derived from Afar Depression in Ethiopia.
~ He Had Apelike face and human-like teeth. He was small in stature and Bipedal, but Walked bent over, not fully upright.
~ They had very small brains -Brain capacity from 375 to 500 cc – (Its Brain was the size of an orange.)
~ They had a bony ridge over the eyes, a low forehead, a flat nose, and also they had no chin.
~ Remains found at Laetoli in Tanzania and Tugen Hills in Baringo District.
~ A. africanus existed between 3 and 2.5 million years ago. A. africanus was slenderly built, or Gracile (Gracile means slender) with a height of 1.5m.
~ Was significantly more like modern humans than A. Afarensis, with a larger brain and more humanoid facial features.
~ Had large teeth, jaws and skull
~ A. africanus has been found at only four sites in southern Africa — Taung (1924),
Sterkfontein (1935), Makapansgat (1948) and Gladysvale (1992).
~ He Lived between 1½ – 2mya in South Africa.
~ He is the biggest and most recent Australopithecine. – weight 68kg. He had more robust
skull, jaws, and teeth.
~ He ate fruits, nuts and raw tubers- was apparently a vegetarian.
~ His Remains were found primarily in cave deposits at Swartkrans and Kromdraai in South Africa.
~ His Average brain size was about 530 cc
~ The East African A.Robustus was named A. Boisei
5) Homo habilis
(“Handy Man”) – “man with ability”.
~ He is the earliest known species of the genus Homo; that is, the first human species. He lived 2.5 -1.5 million years ago
~ He was the First Homo specie to create and use stone tools for hunting and daily life. Homo habilis depicted the ability to make better tools than his predecessors. That is why he was referred to as man with ability.
~ His Brain size was -500 -800 cc;-the Brain shape is more humanlike.
~ He was capable of rudimentary speech.
~ He was about 127 cm (5’0″) tall, and about 45 kg (100 lb) in weight, although females may have been smaller
~ His fossils were found in the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1964 by Dr. J. Leakey.
~ His Remains were also found at Hadar and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and kobi fora along L. Turkana by Benerd Ngeneo in 1972.
6) Homo erectus (“Upright Man”)
~ He was BIPEDAL- standing about 4-5 feet tall with a larger brain (700-1250cc). He lived between 2 million and 200,000 years ago.
~ He was clever as illustrated by his ability to make Acheulian tools such as the hand axe which was used as an axe, knife or even as a scraper. He was the First hominid to invent and use fire.
~ Their skeletons were larger and showed that they were quite heavily muscled
~ They were omnivorous like many other early hominids.
~ Only had hair on their head and back like are men that we have today
~ Remains found in Hardar, Ethiopia where the skeleton of a female ‘Lucy’ were found.
~ Other fossils were found near Nariokotone River on the north western shores of LakeTurkana by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984.
~ Also at Olorgesaillie near Magadi, Isimila near Iringa in TZ and Tenerife in Algeria.
~ The most famous Homo Erectus fossil was found in a cave in Zhoukoudian, China and became known as Peking Man/Java man
7) Homo sapiens (“Wise Man” thinking man)
~ Their Main difference with their hominid ancestors is their extreme intelligence–they were the smartest hominid that ever lived with a Brain capacity of 1000-1800cc
~ They lived between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago
~ They improved their way of life by making a variety of flint, bone, wood and stone tools
(Microliths)
~ They hunted, gathered and fished. Later on, they domesticated plants and animals
~ Their Remains were found at Eliye Springs, Kanjera and Kanam in Kenya, Bodo and Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and Ngaloba in Tanzania.
Three sub-species of Homo sapiens existed;
~ The sub-species Was discovered in Zambia , hence the name Rhodesian man
~ He had straight legs and walked with long strides.
~ Rhodesian man’s Brains and skull were very similar to those of modern man.
~ His Remains were found in Neander valley, Germany (1856). They Lived in caves and valleys
~ He was 5 feet and 5 inches tall-much stronger, heavily built and more aggressive too.
~ He Had very thick eyebrow ridges like the other hominids
~ He Made clothes from animal skins. They would scrape animal fat so they can use the skin as clothing.
~ They were probably the First humans to bury their dead. He was most likely the most intelligent hominid other than modern humans.
~ He was a nomad, gathering and hunting deer, wild pigs and wild sheep. Their weapons were used to impale animals; therefore, to kill them, they had to approach the animal and get very close. This was dangerous and probably caused injuries and even fatalities.
~ Communication was key in hunting because they had to work as a team. They had the ability to use complex speech; however, their sentences were probably basic. Instead of painting on cave walls they painted their faces.
~ Other remains were found in Asia in France, Belgium, Gibraltar, Italy and former
Yugoslavia.
~ They became extinct about 30,000 years ago.
~ He was almost identical to modern humans although quite muscular and taller. Had long, low skull and a wide face, a sharp, rising forehead, bushy eyebrows and prominent chins
~ They had a big brain capacity and had very complex thinking
~ He was hunter-gatherer, painter and lived in caves
~ He knew how to make clothes
~ His Fossil remains were found in Western Europe. Their skeletons still remain in France today
~ They became extinct around 10,000years ago
8) Homo sapiens sapiens
~ Homo sapiens sapiens are modern day humans. They evolved about 50,000 years ago.
~ They have big brains and a more advanced faculty for curiosity and intelligence
~ They have a large brain capacity. They do not just think, they plan ahead, make accurate forecasts, and study the star and the galaxies
~ They have made inventions that have made life more comfortable.
~ They are Around 5 feet 6 inches tall and Walk fully upright
~ They have Minimal hair on our bodies (replaced by clothing)-We have clothes that are made from brands, factories, we also sew or knit our own clothing.
The growing knowledge of genetic structure and functions has enabled human beings to clone animals using genes obtained from existing animals, thereby producing offsprings that looks exactly like the original e.g. the work of Dr. Wilmut Ian at the Roslin Institute of Edinburgh, Scotland that led to the first cloned sheep named dolly. Scientists are making attempts to even clone humans.More recent discoveries of early man include the Toumai found in Chad in 2002 dating about 6 to 7 myaIn 2000, another discovery was made in Baringo, Kenya (millennium man) and is believed todate 6mya. The discovery was made by Martin Pickford and Eustace Gitonga o the National Museums of Kenya.
Appearance of races
It has been hypothesized modern humans, using superior technology and more efficient adaption, out competed other hominid species to quickly emerge as the only surviving hominid species on the planet.Though we feature much diversity in appearance, these differences are minor compared to our biological similarities/all human beings are quite closely related.Many of our physical differences (skin, color, hair color, etc.) are relatively recent adaptations to local environment conditions. Evolutionary forces such as genetic drift have also played a role in our creating such variation as well.
Biologists and anthropologists classified humans into three different groups based on physical characteristics.
Negroids, found in Africa.
Caucasians found in Europe
Mongoloids found in Asia,
Modern genetics has revealed that these categories make very little sense biologically since modern races are derived from a common stock and the different races are able to interbreed. There are also no differences in intelligence among all races of mankind.
The term “race” has traditionally been used by scientists as the equivalent of the subspecies concept when classifying humans.The Cultural and economic practices of early man
What is culture?
Culture is the way of life of a people-Customs, language and social institutions
The things that early humans made and used formed their material culture. Early man’s culture can be understood through study of Stone Age or Paleolithic periods
What is Stone Age?
This refers to the early period of human history when man’s tools and weapons were mainly made of stone and to some extend – wood and bone
There are three Stone Age periods
1) Old stone age- Paleolithic period- 4,500,000 to 50,000years
2) Middle stone age- Mesolithic period-50,000-15,000 years.
3) New Stone Age – Neolithic period- 15,000- 1,500 years
The Paleolithic Age
“Paleolithic” -> “Old Stone” Age- 4,500,000 – 50,000 years ago
The Paleolithic is the longest of all stone ages, covering roughly 2 million years.
The hominid species who lived side by side were Australopithecus, Homo habilis and Homoerectus.
EARLY STONE AGE TOOLS
The hominids Made tools from stone
The Tool Traditions was called Oldowan tools / pebble tools. The tools were named after Olduvai Gorge where they were found. They were made by Australopithecus and Homo erectus. They were also known as pebble tools because they were made of stones.
Among the finds at Olduvai were the chopper, fist hatchet (core tools) and several flake tools.Such tools were also found at Kobi For a near Lake Turkana, Omo River Valley in Ethiopia, and Kafu Valley in Uganda, Shaba province in Zaire and in Algeria, Tunisia and morocco.In Kenya, the tools were found at sites in kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsAustralopithecus “Southern Ape” They didn’t have the intelligence to make sophisticated tools, so they may have made tools out of bones that they foundAustralopithecus afarensis mostly used tools that they found or that nature had created, example was a stick, which they stuck into a termite mound, then the termites clung to it letting the ape pull out the stick covered in food. He is however also credited for making Oldowan tools.
Homo habilis and the Oldowan Tradition
They made stone tools for chopping, scraping, and cutting. Making of Choppers (lower left) involved knapping a few flakes off the core. Both cores and flakes were used. The Knapper could strike a spherical piece of stone until Flake falls off opposite side. The Tool would then be flipped over and procedure repeated. Several blows would create a cutting edgeRequirements reflect Intelligence, Planning, foreknowledge of design and Knowledge of breakage pattern of rock. There must also be Hand-eye coordination
The second phase of the Old Stone Age was marked by tools called Acheulian tools, named after the site of St Acheul in France. Others found in Tanzania, Uganda, Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. In Kenya, the tools were found at Kariandusi, Olorgesaillie, Kilombe, Chesowanja, Mtongwe, Isenya and Lewa DownsThey were made by Homoerectus. Homo erectus and the Acheulian tool technology. Signature tool: a well-designed hand axe and cleavers
The Hand axe had multiple uses, from cutting, skinning, scraping animal skins, digging and sharpening bone and wood.
Characteristics of Acheulian hand axe
~ It was Bifacial: both sides were knapped
~ Symmetrical in breadth
~ Shaped to a point on one end
~ The edge is thin and sharp
~ Broad end is curved, but edge is still sharp.
Process of Manufacturing Acheulian Hand axes
Dozens of flakes were removed from the core, from 25 to 75. Each flake blow must be precisely positioned. The Core must be turned over again and again to maintain symmetry and to keep edge straight. All the exterior rind (cortex) was removed. It was a demanding task-The hand axe was Symmetrical and finely shaped.
OLD STONE AGE-HUNTING AND GATHERING
The early Stone Age people lived in small groups and were able to hunt for food using sharpened rocks and sticks. They used simple hunting methods of chasing wild animals and throwing stones at them. They also made traps by digging large pits on the paths used by animals. They ate raw meat from small animals like lizards and rodents
Women gathered edible fruits, eggs and roots- had a balanced diet.
THE OLD STONE AGE-SHELTER AND CLOTHING
Humans during this period found shelter in caves and tree-tops.
Their bodies were hairy enough to keep them warm- lack of clothing was therefore bearable during this period. Moreover, the savannahs were also warm enough.
They also preferred the grasslands because they provided them with the much needed water and foodThe Australopithecus had a very small brain and that limited the actions they could do. The Australopithecus were very hairy so they didn’t need any clothes. Australopithecus diet was mostly made up of fruits and vegetables they found. If Australopithecus found a dead animal it would scavenge of it but the Australopithecus afarensis couldn’t cook the meat and kill the germs.
Mesolithic age
Mesolithic“middle Stone” Age- 200,000– 10,000 years ago.
They period was characterized by superior brains and ability of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Great improvements were witnessed.
TOOLS
Signature tool; Sangoan tool made using Lavallois method
The tool was named after Sango Bay site on L. Victoria-Tz
The Lavallois technology
It involved using cores of smaller stones to hit bigger ones. The tool maker would draw outline of flake on stone module and Strike out flakes and blades of desired shape. The rock would be prepared beforehand to control how rock breaks when struck. The flakes and blades were then trimmed into a variety of knives, scrapers, spear points, choppers and daggers.Also Mousterian tools (specialized stone tools and weapons) were made.
Tang- the first tool with a handle was invented in this period- 40,000 years ago in northern Africa.Fire was also another important tool invented by Homo erectus and he used it as follows
~ For warmth at night, lighting, to cook roots and roast meat, for hunting (bushfires), tool-making to harden tips, means of communication, food preservation
~ It also enabled hominids to migrate out of savannah
MESOLITHIC – FOOD AND CLOTHES
Homo erectus was considered the first true hunters. Because of better tools
(Hand axe), fire and axes, they could hunt larger game such as deer, rhinos, pigs, elephants; buffaloes etc. and cook their food.People learnt to wear animal skins and make waist-belts and necklaces. They also painted themselves with red ochre and oil.
MESOLITHIC – SHELTER.
Man used identifiable shelter. An example was found at Orangia in South Africa. Man also used rock shelter (rocks scooped out to make hollows). Later man lived in caves with entrance covered with animal skins to keep wind and rain away (e.g. Matupi Cave in Zaire and Gambles cave near Nakuru.
MESOLITHIC – LANGUAGE AND ROCK ART
Families lived in small groups for security reasons. There were distinct languages to enhance communications.Rock paintings-Pictures of animals were painted on walls and rocks. Examples of Cave paintings were left behind at Kondoa and singida areas in north Tanzania and at Apollo II cave in S.A. This pictures signified man’s believe in magic (arrows piercing animals he hoped to kill)
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
There was efficient group organization as evidenced by the ability to carry out large-scale hunting. Language invention further strengthened the social bonds and cultures of early man
The Neolithic age
Neolithic “New Stone” Age- 15,000 – 4,000 years ago
This period was marked with the Emergence of Homo sapiens and homo sapien sapiens.
THE NEOLITHIC TOOLS
Man became a Very skilled toolmaker-they made tools known as microliths- (small piece of sharp stone tool). For example, a crescent or a lunate which had a straight sharp cutting edge and a curved blunted back.Their weapons include stone axes, knives, spears, harpoons, wooden bows, and sharp, stone tipped arrows, hooks, needles, and bone fish hooks.NEANDERTHALS were the first to create the pointed tip on hunting spears and harpoons
THE NEOLITHIC SHELTER
Earlier sapiens used caves as their homes instead of building one. Later, they made permanent homes that looked like tents or tepees, out of tree branches, grass, mammoth bones, and animal skins. They used or made some sort of paint to use on their cave paintings.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
Man domesticated plants and animals though he continued to hunt and gather.
Man changed as from Nomadic lifestyle to settled stationary lifestyle; a.k.a.sedentary
Population also increased due to balanced diet and adequate food
THE NEOLITHIC GOVERNMENT
Due to settled life and improved settlement, rules and laws were set up as a basis of government. Some people also specialized in leadership, religious activities as well as making of crafts.
THE NEOLITHIC RELIGION
Man’s language and religious beliefs developed as a result of depending on natural forces like rain. They began to ponder over issues like life and death.Evidence is found at Hyrax Hill and Njoro river Cave where human fossil remains were found buried with items such as tools and seeds or foodThe practice of burying someone with his possessions implied a belief in life after death.Neanderthals were the first to bury their dead. They also seemed to have a conception of an afterlife as shown by the actual burial site at La Ferrassie, France, with seven tombs including a man, a woman and several children’s graves lying side by side.
THE NEOLITHIC ART AND CRAFT
Humans specialized in crafts such as basketry, pottery and later smelting
Evidenced by this horse’ head carving to the right.
DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Definition of agriculture
It is the cultivation of crops. The modern definition of agriculture includes animal husbandry, fish farming and bee-keeping.
The beginning of Agriculture
The domestication of plants and animals began over 10,000 years ago during the Neolithic period
Why man domesticated plants and animals
There are two theories that explain how agriculture started;
CROP GROWING
The transformation from hunting and gathering to growing of food crops was a gradual development. The first crops were grown by man in areas where they existed naturally.
Crop growing first developed in the Fertile Crescent which is in the Middle East.
Neolithic women noticed new grain plants grew when they accidentally spilled grain seeds. They tried scattering seeds on purpose – it worked!
~ Animals often find plants in places with water / good soil – Hunters saw pattern
~ People stayed at sites, animals became tamer
~ People started weeding / irrigating so plants would grow better
~ Started saving seeds of better plants to plant
~ One season, nomads liked a site so much they stuck around
~ Stayed so long they harvested a crop and then saw it grow to harvest stage again
~ Groups learned to grow a crop from seed to harvest and then move on
~ Since men did the hunting and females were responsible for the food gathering, women learned how to plant seeds, as well as process and prepare the food.
The above facts point out that the beginning of crop farming was accidental and mainly through trial and errorEarliest crops to be domesticated were barley, wheat, sorghum, millet, rice, maize, yams, cassava, potatoes, bananas and grapes. Since they grew in different environments, there were many centres of agricultural revolution. For example;
~ Middle East.
~ Indus valley in India.
~ Nile valley
~ The yellow river valley in china
~ The Danube Valley in Europe.
WHEAT
Originally grown in south-west Asia
Initial type was brittle wheat-then replaced by a non-brittle type in 7500BC called emmer
Wheat then spread Mesopotamian plains by 6000 BC to Egypt by 3000BC, then to Mediterranean region, central Asia, India and southern Europe.
BARLEY
The first cereal to be domesticated.Initially grew wildly at Mureybat on the Euphrates in Syria between 7000 – 6000 BC Another evidence of growth found at Ali kosh (Iran) and Jericho (Jordan)Then spread to Egypt at Fayum in 4500 BC. Then spread to India and china by about 2000 BC.
SORGHUM AND MILLET
Originated from Africa at Hoggat in southern Algeria as early as 6000 BC
Spread to West Africa to around Sudan area between Nile and Chad, by 1500 BC
Finger millet originated in East Africa.
Later the two spread to Asia and China.
RICE
Originated in Asia where currently is a stable food- in Thailand at about 3500 BC
Then spread to India, Europe and Japan
The African variety was grown along the upper Niger around 1500 BC
MAIZE
Origin- Central America at about 5000 BC at Tehuacan in Mexico.
In Africa, was introduced by the Portuguese in 15thc.
YAMS
The first root and tuber crop to be domesticated- 9000 BC in south East Asia.
The African variety, the white guinea yam was grown in Ivory Coast.
DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
The Dog was the first animal to be domesticated. The next animals were the sheep, Goats, cattle and camels. Animal domestication Began through establishment of ties between man and animals during hunting or when fetching water.
Dog
Assisted humans in hunting, driving away dangerous animals and herding livestock
Goats
The Goat was first domesticated in south west Asia in5000 BC.Evidence of this is found at Tell Abu Hureyra, Tepe Ali Kosh, and Deh Luren Khuzestan in south -west Iran. Also in Iraq, upper Tigris valley, turkey and south Jordan. Goat domestication was in Egypt in 5000 BC Sheep.Sheep was domesticated after the dog. Fossil evidence of sheep keeping has been found at Zawi Chemi Shanid in Iraq and dating to about 9000 BC. Sheep were also kept in Syria, Egypt and Saharan region then to West Africa. Sheep was also kept in Indus valley and yellow river valleys.
Cattle
Cattle was first domesticated in south-west Asia as early as 5800BC in turkey and then in Iran and Iraq. It then spread to Ethiopia and North Africa from Asia.
The short-horned cattle originated in Mesopotamia then spread to Africa and Europe.
Camel
Though camels are associated with North Africa today, the original home has been traced to North America from where t spread to South America and Asia. The Asian and s. American species became the ancestors of the Alpaca and Illama.Two types of camels exist today- the one-humped (found in Middle East, northern china and Africa), and the two-humped camel (found in central Asia.) Camels were domesticated about 3000 BC to 2500 BC
Importance of the domestication of animals
agricultural produce.
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN MESOPOTAMIA
Mesopotamia was the land between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates and lay in the present day irag. It was one of the centres of early civilization as early as 3000 BC.
Food production in this region began as early as 8000 BC.
Reasons why early agriculture developed in Mesopotamia
The Sumerians are credited as the first people to use irrigation in growing crops. When the river water overflowed the banks during flooding, the Sumerians had the skill of controlling it through canals into the dry lands. (Canal or bucket irrigation). They also used farm implements to improve crop growing. For example the use of ox-drawn ploughs and seed drills pulled by oxen to replace stone hoes.Most of the people during the summer civilization earned their livelihood as farmers, craftsmen, fishermen and cattle breeders.Most of the land was in form of large estates owned by the rulers or the wealthy classes. The peasants were given small plots along with seeds, farm implements and animals in exchange for labour.
The Crops grown included barley, wheat, vines, date, palms, grapes, olives, onions, figs, melons and cucumbers. Milk animals kept included goats and cow. Also ducks, pigs, geese and horses were kept.
Impact of early agriculture in Mesopotamia
agriculture in one way or another. For example, Ninurta was a god of floods.
EARLY AGRICULTURE IN EGYPT
As early as 7000 BC, people had already settled in the Nile valley. By around 5000 BC, the Egyptians had gradually adopted agriculture, departing from a hunter-gatherer society.
Reasons that enhanced development of early Agriculture in Egypt
The shadoof irrigation
This was the method of irrigation used in Egypt during the drought season when the river was not flooding. A shadoof is a wooden device for lifting water from a river into the canals. It consisted of a long pole swinging up and down between two supporting wooden posts One end has a weight hanging on the pole while the other end has a skin bucket. The bucket is pulled down and dipped into the water by a person. It is caused to rise by the weight, once water has been filled. The other person empties the water into the canal to be drained into the fields.The Egyptians used farm implements like sticks, knives, axes, sickles and hoesAmong the crops planted in Egypt included wheat, barley, fruits, flax, beans, vegetables, cucumbers, onions, lentils, dates, figs and grapes. They used the broadcasting method. Shifting cultivation was also practiced before human population increased.They kept animals like sheep, goat, pigs, donkey, cattle and poultry.
The state directed production. It controlled distribution of harvests as well as handicrafts.
Government owned huge granaries and godowns which were used to store food.
The king was regarded as the guardian who presided over food supply for all. The master of largesse was responsible for all the livestock in the country. In the year when agricultural production was poor, the head of the exchequer would take care of the distribution of seeds and livestock.
Effects of early agriculture in Egypt
Effects of early agriculture
Summarize from the effects in Egypt and Mesopotamia.
THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
The agrarian revolution refers to rapid changes and improvements in the field of agriculture.
Between 1750 and 1850 European countries underwent changes in agriculture.
The changes were marked by
A new system of land ownership
Use of machines and new farming methods.
The revolution took place first in Britain.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN BRITAIN BEFORE THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
What is Feudalism?
“Loosely organized system of government in which local lords governed their own lands but owed military service and other support to a greater lord (nobility)”
The feudal kings had plenty of land; but they could not control it all. So they gave land to lords (nobility) in exchange for protection, loyalty and $.Nobility then gave Part of their land to the serfs (peasants) who would work on it and give part of their crops to the local (land) lord, for letting them farm the land.
In this system land was divided into three portions;
III. Portion three- left fallow to regain fertility.
Such a system did not allow effective farming since land was not fully utilized.
It also discouraged livestock farming since it allowed easy spread of livestock diseases.
There was uncontrolled breeding in livestock instead of selective breeding since livestock grazed together.
Fallow land and existence of Cattle and footpaths that crisscrossed the farms wasted a lot of land.
CHANGES THAT MARKED THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
Introduction and use of fertilizers in farms
Lord Viscount Townsend discovered that clover added nitrogen to the soil and turnips could survive in winter and be used to feed cattle.
Townsend introduced a new four- course crop rotation called the Norfolk system consisting of barley, clover, turnips and wheat on same plot for a four-year period.
In 1843, John Bennet Lawes discovered the use of fertilizers and opened a superphosphate factory in London.
The use of machines changed agriculture from a small scale to a large-scale business.
Positive effects of the land enclosure system introduced in Britain
production.
improvement of their farms.
Effects of the land enclosure movement on the peasant farmers in Britain
afford to cultivate the land.
land and hence they migrated to towns/ caused rural -urban migration.
countries such as USA, Canada, Australia, new Zealand and south Africa
CAUSES OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
EFFECTS OF THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN
THE SPREAD OF AGRARIAN REVOLUTION
From Britain the revolution spread to other parts of Europe and Americas and then the rest of the world. Ideas like crop rotation, use of machines, selective breeding of livestock and use of fertilizers spread into continental Europe from Britain. The governments encouraged agricultural science and research.
The work of Louis Pasteur (1890-1960) a Frenchman discovered that disease are caused by bacteria and sterilization of food such as milk through boiling keeps it bacteria-free for long time
THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN THE USA
The Americas was the origin of many crops in the world the American Indians were subsistence farmers growing crops like yams, potatoes, maize (corn), cocoa, tomatoes, cotton, tobacco, beans and cassava.Political and religious differences in Europe in the 17th c forced many Europeans to settle in America as was also the enclosure system in Britain. Craftsmen and labouerers also moved in search of better life. The immigrant settlers came with horses, sheep, cattle, pigs, fowls, seeds and plants from Europe. Some of them participated in improving the machines that were already in use in Europe. For example:
American scientists also developed the refrigerator. For example, John Perkins (1766-1849) an American inventor patented the first prototype refrigerator in England in 1834. The first American patent for a refrigerator was awarded to John Gorrie (1803-1855) in 1851.1859- Ferdinand Carre, a Frenchman invented the absorption system in a refrigerator. This was a major milestone in preservation of meat and other foods in America.Several agricultural zones emerged in America due to differences in soil fertility and climate:
There was large scale mechanized agriculture especially after the abolition of slave trade. Most cash crops were grown to provide raw materials to European industries. Tobacco was grown in Virginia and Maryland. Rice and indigo were grown in Georgia and South Carolina. Cattle’s rearing was done in Texas.Transport development also enhanced agricultural development. For example, water transport using the great lakes, railway and road transport.Alexander graham bell invented the telegraph to enhance communication.
USA also invested in the field of science and research which boosted agriculture with better hybrid seeds and different strains of livestock.
FACTORS THAT FACILITATED THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICUL-TURE IN AMERICA BEFORE 1800
encouraged settlers to farm.
EFFECTS OF THE AGRARIAN REVOLUTION IN USA
Fuelled by peasants who emigrated after they were driven out of Europe by the land enclosure movement, USA became the world’s leading producer of agricultural products.
The effects of the revolution were as follows:
FOOD SITUATION IN AFRICA AND THE REST OF THE THIRD WORLD
“Third world” refers to the less developed countries in Africa, Asia and South America.
Many of these third world countries have food shortages and even continue to have weak economies upto date.
Causes to food shortage in Africa
Effects of food shortages
Solutions to food shortage in Africa
STEPS KENYA HAS TAKEN TO SOLVE FOOD SHORTAGES
THE PEOPLE OF KENYA UP TO THE 19THCENTURY
INTRODUCTION
There is immense evidence to confirm that east Africa was the cradle of humankind.
Archaeological evidence (for example, the tools found at kobi for a, Olorgesaillie, kariandusi, Mtongwe, around Lake Victoria, lukenya hills, near lake Naivasha) show that Kenya was inhabited by Stone Age people. There is also evidence of use of iron in Kenya dating back as AD270 e.g. at Urewe near Ngiya in Siaya and in Kwale.
THE KHOISAN
According to oral traditions, the earliest people to occupy Kenya were of the Khoisan stock. They had similar features like the Khoi khoi and the san of South Africa, the Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania. They all spoke a language with a clicking sound.
Cultural aspects of the Khoisan
NB- such evidence of the culture of the Khoisan has been found in Gambles and Njoro river caves near Nakuru.These pioneering inhabitants of Kenya disappeared maybe after being subdued and overcome by the powerful incoming Bantus and nilotes.However, there exist some remnants of these hunter-gatherer communities in the western highlands of rift valley. They speak the language of the group near them like kalenjin (okiek), Maasai (Dorobo), Onguye and Okuro in western Kenya.
THE CUSHITES
They existed in two groups:
The southern Cushites
They might have entered present day Kenya through northern Kenya and seem to have originated from the Ethiopian highlands. Since they were pastoralists, they must have been looking for better pasture for their livestock.Around 2500 and 3000 years ago, they were already occupying the grasslands of the Kenya highlands cultivating food crops like sorghum , millet and rearing long horned humpless cattle. They even extended upto Tanzania. They included the Iraqi, Boni and Burungi of Tanzania, The Dahallo or Sanye of the lower Tana (the remaining southern Cushites in Kenya). Some were later absorbed by the incoming groups.
The Eastern Cushites
They include the Borana, Somali, Oromo, Gabra, Rendille and Burji.
They originated either from Ethiopia or Somalia moving and settling into Kenya around 2000 and 1000 years ago due to the following reasons;
THE OROMO
They came in the 16thcentury from Ethiopia. Initially they settled on the eastern shores of Lake Turkana. They later moved south pushing the Mijikenda and the Pokomo out of the Shungwaya to occupy Malindi and Kilifi. Today they occupy the southern part of Tana River and are neighbours to the Pokomo.
Effects of migration and settlement of the Oromo in Kenya
THE BORANA
They are also Oromo speaking people whose origin is southern Ethiopia. Their migration into Kenya was due to escaping the Menelik Wars of Conquest in 1897 and who had imposed heavy taxes on them. They represent some of the most recent migrations into Kenya end as late as 1900 when more Borana groups fled into Kenya from Somali running away from the war between the Somali Nationalists and the British.
Today the Borana occupy the area north of the Tana River.
THE SOMALI
They originated from Mogadishu where they were living by 10th century A.D. They begun moving southwards into Kenya around that time maybe due to the Oromo threat or they were looking for pasture for their livestock.The Somali represent the largest single group of eastern Cushites in Kenya.
Results of Cushitic migration into Kenya
neighbours e.g. they traded with the Samburu and the Maasai.
Taboo against eating Fish among the Bantu, the age set system and circumcision has origin from the Cushites.
THE BANTU SPEAKERS
Introduction
The term Bantu refers to group of people who speak the same or similar language with common word “NTU” which means a person. The Bantu-speaking groups include the Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria, Kikuyu, Akamba, Meru, Aembu, Taita, Agiryama, Digo in Kenya and Pokomo, as well as many other smaller groupsTheir original homeland was somewhere between eastern Nigeria and the Cameroon (Congo Basin).
They then moved southwards towards present day Democratic Republic of Congo (around 500 BC the Bantu were living in the Congo forest). This became a major dispersal point from where the Bantus moved in four major waves. Of these waves, the two waves that account for settle of the Bantu in Kenya are the ones moving south-eastwards through the area west of LakeVictoria (a 2nddispersal point for Bantus). From here they dispersed in two groups;
Banyoro, Batoro), proceeding into kenya to form the western Bantu(Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria and abasuba)
REASONS FOR THE BANTU MIGRATION
The reasons for the migration of the Bantu are not known but they most likely included the following;
overpopulated in their cradle land.
The western Bantu
They include Luhyia, Kisii, Kuria and abasuba and settled in western part of kenya thus their name.
Abaluhyia
~ The Abaluhyia community is made up of eighteen sub-groups. The sub-groups which constitute the community have a common background, common customs and speak closely related dialects of the same language.
~ According to Abaluhyia tradition, communities used to hold criminal tribunals at the junctions of footpaths. The area at the junction of footpaths was known as Uluyia or a meeting point and it is claimed that the name Abaluhyia is derived from this. Another version states that in a polygamous home the courtyard outside the main father’s house is called Luhyia. All the children are referred as children of one Luhyia and hence the name Abaluhyia.
~ Most of the Luhyia sub-groups point to mt. elgon dispersal point as their origin. The settlement of the Abaluhyia into Kenya dates back to 300 AD. By 1750 AD, many groups had settled in present day Bukhayo, Marama, Tiriki, Bunyore, Wanga and Maragoli.
~ They absorbed some groups they found in the area. Also, their interaction with the Maasai led to establishment of clans like the Abashimuli among the Idakho. The Marachi, Kisa and Samia interacted with the Luo.
Abagusii
~ Abagusii traditions acknowledge a close relationship with the following people: the Abakuria, Abalogoli, Ababukusu, Abasuba, Agikuyu, Ameru, Aembu, Ambeere and the Akamba. Their tradition has it that on their way from the country which they call ‘Msiri’ they were accompanied by the Baganda and the Basoga besides the above groups.
~ The Abagusii and the Abalogoli migrated southwards following the River Nzoia valley and arrived near Lake Victoria between 1490 and 1520. Following an easterly course along the lake shore, they settled at the head of Goye Bay in Yimbo location of Nyanza with their homeland spreading across present day Ulowa, Sare and Unyejra at the foot of Ramogi hill. Luo migrants in 1550 AD found them settled in this general area and pushed them from alego to Kisumu where they lived upto 1600AD.
~ Their migration from Kisumu to Kano was motivated by drought in the area.. However, their eastward migration was checked by the Maasai and the Kipsigis
~ By the 18thcentury, they had settled in the Kisii highlands positively interacting with the neighboring Luo, Maasai and Kipsigis in terms of trade.
Why the Abagusii remained in the Kano plains for too long before settling in the Kisii highlands.
Abakuria
~ The origin of the name ‘Kuria’ is a thorny point in the Abakuria history. The major Abakuria sub-tribes such as Abanyabasi, Abatimbaru, Abanyamongo, Abakira, Abairegi and Abagumbe have traditions to the effect that their ancestor was Mokuria (or Mukuria) that lived in “Msiri”. His descendants migrated from “Msiri” and after many years of wandering on the other side of Lake Victoria; they eventually reached and settled in the present Bukuria By 1800AD,) in south Nyanza.)
~ According to this tradition, the Abakuria have been divided from time immemorial into two families: the Abasai of the elder wife of Mokuria and the Abachuma of the younger wife.
~ The Abakuria are related to Abalogoli of Abaluhyia and Abagusii and trace same origin at mt. elgon dispersal point.
~ The Abakuria people appear to have sprung from too many directions to have a common historical origin, although a number of clans claim to have come from Msiri.
~ Among the Abakuria today are found people who were originally from Kalenjin, Maasai, Bantu and Luo speaking communities. The Abakuria adopted the practice of age set organization and circumcision from the southern Cushites
Abasuba
~ The name “Suba” means “the people who are always wandering”.
~ The Suba migrated into their current locations beginning in the mid-1700s. They came from the region just west of Lake Victoria and settled on the islands.
~ The Suba migrated from Uganda and settled on the two Lake Victoria islands of Rusinga and Mfangano, and are believed to be the last tribe to have settled in Kenya. Other subgroups migrated and settled on the shores of Lake Victoria in the early 18th century.
~ The Suba are descendants of one wave of the Bantu migration from Central Africa over the last 1500 to 1800 years. In the 16th century, it appears, small family groups related to the Ganda people on the western side of the lake migrated across Lake Victoria on boats to settle on Rusinga Island and other islands near what is now Kenya and Tanzania.
~ The Suba are descendants of one wave of the Bantu migration from Central Africa over the last 1500 to 1800 years. In the 16th century, it appears, small family groups related to the Ganda people on the western side of the lake migrated across Lake Victoria on boats to settle on Rusinga Island and other islands near what is now Kenya and Tanzania.
~ Linguistically, the Suba are highly influenced by the neighbouring Luo, to the point of a language shift having taken place among large portions of the mainland Suba.
~ The remaining speakers of the Suba language are mostly elderly residents on the island of Mfangano.
The eastern Bantu
They are divided into Highland or Mt. Kenya Bantu and Coastal Bantu.
Coastal Bantu
They include the Taita, Pokomo and Mijikenda.From the west Victoria dispersal point their first movement was upto Taita hills, where the Taita remained. The Mijikenda and Pokomo proceeded northwards to the coast upto Shungwaya (another dispersal point). The main reason for the Shungwaya dispersal was the Oromo attack In AD 1600.
Pokomo
They moved from Shungwaya following river Tana interacting with the Cushites like the Oromoand Somali.
Mijikenda
The name means Nine Clans comprising of the Kauma, Giriama, Duruma, Chonyi, Jibana, Kambe, Ribe, Rabai and Digo.From the Shungwaya dispersal point,(forced out by the Oromo/Somali southwards expansionist attacks), they settled in fortified villages mainly due to security concerns. Each of the nine groups settled in their own separate ridge referred to as Kaya fortified with thorny trees.By the 19th, the Mijikenda were established as middlemen during the long distance trade between the Akamba and the coastal Waswahili.
The highland Bantu
Examples of highland Bantus include Agikuyu, Ameru, Aembu, Ambeere and the Akamba
They are also products of the Shungwaya dispersion.
Agikuyu
~ The largest single group of the eastern group.
~ While the Kikuyu can be found throughout Kenya, the heaviest concentration being in Central Province, known as the traditional Kikuyu homeland.
The Kikuyu traditionally believe that a man, Gikuyu, was the founder of the tribe. He had a wife named Mumbi, who gave birth to nine (plus one) daughters. The daughters married and had their own families, retaining a domineering role in Kikuyu society.
~ It was in Mukurwe wa Gathanga division of Nyeri district where an identifiable beginning for the modern Kikuyu people is defined.
~ Ancestors of the Kikuyu arrived in Kenya during the Bantu migrations of 1200-1600 AD. The Agikuyu seem to have moved southwest from the coast at around 1400AD also running away from hostile Oromo. They followed Tana River with some groups falling off and settling in different places. For example the Tharaka settled in the east and the Ambeere settled in the southwest. The main group proceeded upto the confluence of rivers Tana and Thika (Mukurwe wa Gathanga. They spread and settled in Kiambu and Nyandarua from Murang’a.
~ The key event in their migration and settlement was military conflict with and defeat of the Gumbapeople by the Mathira and Tetu people, allied with the Athi and the Maasai in the early 1800’s.
~ They displaced or absorbed the original inhabitants-the Dorobo (Athi) and Gumba who were a hunter- gatherer community.
~ Settlement of the Nyeri plains took place after the British moved the Maasai from the area. The Kikuyu were in Kabete by around 1850, Ruiru about 1900.
~ They heavily interacted with the Maasai and Cushites in the area.
Describe the relationship between Athi and the Agikuyu
Akamba
~ They point to the area around mt Kilimanjaro as their original homeland.
~ From here they moved to Taita Hills before reaching Tsavo West. They followed the Banks of Athi River in the 15thcentury one group crossing Athi into Ulu. Another group moved south to the Galana River and settled in the region around chyulu hills north of mt. Kilimanjaro
~ By around mid 16thcentury a group of the Akamba had settled in the Mbooni hills near Machakos.
~ Due to environmental influence, the Akamba near Mbooni began to practice agriculture before migrating to iveti, kilungu and masaku. Those that moved to drier Chyulu hills became hunters. The Kitui group adopted pastoralism and hunting and participated in long distance trade.
The Ameru
~ Their original homeland is claimed to Mbwa, located somewhere at the coast on manda island. The Shungwaya dispersal might have led to the pushing of the Ameru to tigania and igembe regions at around 1400AD. They crossed the Tana River with the Tharaka sections of Agikuyu and settled to the east of tana. The Chuka section settled in the west of river tana. The mwimbi, imenti, tigania and igembe also settled west of the Tana River.
~ According to tradition, the Meru and Agikuyu were initially migrating as one group and separated at around 15thc and 16thc.
Effects of the Bantu Migration
The results of the Bantu migration were both positive and negative.
Positive results
Negative effects
The Nilotic speakers
Nilotes is a term originating from the word Nile. The origin of these groups is associated with the Nile River. These are the second largest group after the Bantu.
They are divided into three groups;
River-lake nilotes
They are sometimes referred to as the southern Luos to differentiate them from other riverlake nilotes in Uganda and Sudan like the Dinka, Shilluk, Bor , Anwak, Alur, Acholi, Jopaluo, Padhola, Nuer and Luo of Uganda.
They are believed to have originated from Bahr-el-Ghazal region of southern Sudan. They then migrated to Pubungu Pakwach in Uganda where they settled by 1450 AD. They later moved into Kenya. Their arrival caused the displacement of many Bantu-speaking peoples, notably the Gusii, Kuria and Luhya, who were forced into the highlands east and north of the lake.
Why did they leave Bahr-el-Ghazal region?
Their migration into Kenya began in the 15thc. they moved in four distinct groups;
Owiny Sigoma and his people Joka Ruoth. This group settled in Kisumu, Nyakach and South Nyanza.
Effects of Luo Migration
Abakuria and Abagusii
Plain Nilotes
They include the Maasai and Samburu (Maa speakers), Iteso, Turkana and Njemps.
The Plain Nilotes entered Kenya at around AD 1000 from an area north of Lake Turkana.
Why they moved into Kenya:
Their first point of settlement was near Mount Moroto in eastern Uganda by AD 1000. From here, several groups like the Jie, Iteso, Turkana and karamojong emerged, with the Iteso settling in Uganda in 17thc before expanding into western Kenya by 19thc. The Turkana extended northwards to their present area.
The effects of the migration and settlement of the iteso
The Maasai
~ Their movement from north of lake Turkana is closely associated with the original Kalenjin speakers. By AD 1500, the Maasai begun to move separately southwards between Mt,. Kenya and Mt. Elgon. By 19thc , they had settled in Uasin Gishu and even spread into Tanzania along the Rift Valley.
~ As they moved, they assimilated the Sirikwa peoples. They also waged war against the neighbouring Kalenjin, Akamba and Abagusii.
~ In the 1850s the Maasai experienced many natural disasters like drought, famine and cattle diseases leading to decline of their power. They also experienced civil wars between the Kwavi (iloikop) and the Purko (Ilmaasai) sections. When Oloibon Mbatian died, his two sons Sendeyo and Lenana became involved in a protracted succession dispute. They were also weakened by wars with the Agikuyu. Their power came to an end with the coming of British rule.
Effects of the migration and settlement of the plain nilotes into Kenya
The Highland Nilotes
They comprise the kalenjin speakers namely the Tugen, Nandi, Kipsigis, Marakwet, Keiyo, Pokot and Sabaot. They are believed to be the earliest Nilotic speakers in Kenya. This evidenced from the narratives of their neighbours like the Luo.
Their traditions point their original homeland to be a place to the north-western part of Kenya, between Sudan and Ethiopia.
Why they migrated:
Key notes for the teacher and students- @Helot 2012-2013 49
They began migrating from their cradleland in around 600AD. By 700AD, some kalenjin groups like the Sirikwa were already occupying the rift valley.
Some were later pushed out of the Mt. elgon region by the incoming Bantu and plain nilotes. Those that remained include the Bok, Bongomek and Kony. The Terik later migrated to western Kenya and greatly borrowed from the Bantu, adopting a new name, Tiriki.
The Nandi.
They were pushed out of the Mt. Elgon region between 1700 and 1800 by the incoming Maasai.
The decline of the Maasai in the 19thc made them rise to become a formidable group that conducted raids against their neighbours like the Abaluhyia and Luo.
Their power only declined due to colonization.
The Kipsigis
They are believed to have separated together with the Nandi from other kalenjin groups at around Mt. Elgon region around AD1600. They moved south east to Teo, near Lake Baringo. Due to the Maasai attacks, they moved westwards to Tambach where they stayed for a long period. They later moved southwards to Rongai near Nakuru.
They only separated from the Nandi due to drought and the Maasai Raids on the Nandi.
The Kipsigis moved further south to Kericho while the Nandi moved to Aldai during the 2nd half of 18thc. The Kipsigis settled at Kipsigis Hills forming a strong community that assimilated thelegendary Sirikwa and some Maasai and Abagusii groups. They were for a long time allies of the Nandi.
What factors contributed to the Nandi and Kipsigis split during the mid 18th century.
Results of the Highland nilotes migration
Explain the results of the interactions between the various Kenyan communities during the pre-colonial period.
between the Agikuyu and the Akamba, some Agikuyu gained wealth.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF KENYAN COMMUNITIES IN THE 19THCENTURY
THE BANTU
Social organization
~ Almost all the Bantu communities were organized in clans made up of people with common descent.
~ All the Bantu communities practiced circumcision. In some communities like the Akamba, Abaluhyia, only boys circumcised. Among the Abagusii and Agikuyu, both boys and girls were circumcised. The initiates were taught the values and customs of their community
~ Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior age-sets on how to raid.
~ All the Bantu communities believed in the existence of a supernatural power that controlled their destiny. The Abaluhyia, for example called their God Were or Nyasaye, the AgikuyuNgai etc.
~ The Bantu communities had diviners and medicineman. Among the Agikuyu community, a medicine person was called mundu mugo.
~ The Bantu celebrated life both in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral. The mood and style of their song and dances varied depending on the occasion.
Political organization of the Bantu
~ All the Bantu communities in Kenya, except the Wanga sub-group of the Luhyia, had decentralized forms of government.
~ The clan formed the basic political unit for all the Bantu communities. Each clan was made up of related families. Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, decided on inter-tribal marriages, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war.
~ Among the Agikuyu and Ameru, the council was known as Kiama, Kambi among Mijikenda, Njama among Ataveta and Abagata ba gesaku among the Gusii.
~ The Bantu had an age-set system that had some political significance. For example among the Agikuyu, the boys joined the age-set after initiation to provide warriors who defended the community from external attacks and raid other communities for cattle.
~ Among the centralized Wanga government, the king was known as Nabongo. His office was hereditary. He was assisted by a chief minister and other officials with a council of elders.
Economic organization of the Bantu
~ The Bantu kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Dowry was paid inform of livestock. Some communities used livestock as a form of currency in barter trade.
~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours such as the Luo, kalenjin and Maasai. They sold grains in exchange for baskets and fish from the Luo.
~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, hoes arrow heads and spearheads. This sometimes also became trading items.
~ The Bantu practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, sorghum and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours.
~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets.
~ For the Bantu communities who lived along rivers and Lake Victoria, e.g. the Luhyia, they practiced fishing.
~ Hunting and gathering was also done by some communities to supplement their food. E.g. the Akamba.
~ Raiding other communities for cattle.
The Agikuyu.
By 19thcentury, the Agikuyu had a complex social, economic and political organization some of which were products of their interrraction with other communities.
Social organization
~ The family was the smallest social unit among the Agikuyu. It was headed by a father.
Several families that shared a common ancestry comprised a clan.
~ The Agikuyu had rites of passage which included initiation of both boys and girls through circumcision/clitoridectomy.
~ The initiated boys joined the age-set (riikaor mariika) after being educated on the values and customs of the society. It was only after initiation that boys and girls were considered mature enough to get married.
~ The Agikuyu believed in the existence of one God who controlled their destiny. They called their God Ngai. He was all powerful and as believed to dwell o mt. kirinyaga where they claim he created them.
~ They also had diviners whose main work was to interpret God’s message to the people.
~ The Agikuyu had medicineman. A medicine person was called mundu mugo. Their main work was to cure diseases. They learned their skills through apparent-iceship.
~ The Agikuyu had designated sacred places for prayers, worship and offerings (an example was the mugumo tree for offering sacrifices).
~ Marriage was an important institution among the Agikuyu.
The political organization of the Agikuyu
~ The Agikuyu had a decentralized system of government. The basic political system was based on the family headed by a father.
~ Several families made up a clan (Mbari). Each clan was ruled by a council of elders. (kiama).
A senior elder (Muramati) coordinated the activities of the clan.
~ Several elders(aramati)formed a higher council of elders (kiama kia athamaki)
~ The functions of the higher council of elders included settling disputes, deliberating on day to day activities, administering justice and handled disputes, inheritance disputes and acted as a final court of appeal.
~ They had warriors drawn from the age-set system, who defended the community from external aggression.
Economic organization of the Agikuyu
The Agikuyu engaged in various economic activities;
~ The Agikuyu kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Dowry was paid inform of livestock.
~ They traded among themselves and with their neighbours such as the Akamba and Maasai.
They sold grains and iron implements in exchange for livestock products like skins and beads (Maasai) and imported goods like clothes(Akamba).
~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, hoes which enhanced their farming activities and trade. They borrowed this art from the Gumba.
~ They practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, yams, sweet potatoes,
arrowroots, sorghum and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours.
~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets.
~ Hunting and gathering was also done by Agikuyu to supplement their food.
The Ameru
The Ameru had a system of government which ensured high standards of morality and stability. This system evolved as they migrated and interacted with other communities.
Social organization of the Ameru
The Ameru was a system characterized by the existence of various councils from the council of children to the supreme council of Njuri Ncheke. This was meant to ensure the highest moral standards in the community.The Njuri Ncheke acted as parliament and had the following functions;
~ It presided over religious ceremonies.
~ It solved disputes in the community. It also mediated in disputes involving the Meru and their neighbors
~ It ensured the custody of the community’s history, traditions and values/heritage
~ It sanctioned wars
~ Acted as ritual leaders. They provided Guidance and counseling community members.
~ It set the moral code to be adhered to by all members of the community. If one went against the moral code, he/she would be punished. A member of the Njuri Ncheke who offended another was fined a bundle of miraa. A warrior who violated the code was fined a bull, an elder who violated the code was fined a bull or a goat, a woman who broke the code was fined a big pot of cowpeas.Marriage was regarded highly among the Ameru and a married woman would be assigned to an elderly woman (midwife) whom she must give gifts like millet, peas and black beans in exchange for midwifery. Any spouse who involved in adultery or any girl who was not a virgin at the time of marriage was stoned to death by a stoning council made up of male initiates. Marriage was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan)Before a male child was considered mature, he underwent several stages including circumcision. Before circumcision of both boys and girls, two ceremonies were performed after which they became full members of the community.
~ The time of making spots where the ear-hole perforation would be done.
~ The time of actual perforation of the ears.
The Ameru believed in the existence of a supreme being called Baaba Weetu who was a loving father and took care of all. He was omnipresent.
The Ameru also believed in the existence of spirits which either brought happiness or tears depending on how one lived on earth.
They believed in life after death with good people going where rains come from when they die.Libations were offered to ancestors to quench their thirst and relieve their hunger
Building houses in the Ameru community was the work of women while men defended the community.
Economic organization of the Ameru
~ The Ameru cultivated grain crops like millet, peas, black beans, cowpeas and miraa among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours.
~ The Ameru kept Livestock like sheep. Goats and cattle for dowry payment and rituals and also for milk, meat and skin.
~ They traded among themselves and with their neighbours. When the coastal traders penetrated the interior, they exchanged goods with them
~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as knives, spears and hoes which enhanced their farming activities and trade.
~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets.
~ Hunting and gathering was also done by Ameru to supplement their food.
Political organization of the Ameru
~ The basic political system was based on the family headed by a father.
~ The basic political unit was the clan. Several families made up a clan headed by a clan elder.
~ The Ameru had a system of councils and age groups which oversaw the administration of the community. Every Meru belonged to the relevant council. E.g. the children’s council, council of elders’ council of warriors. The supreme council was known as Njuri Ncheke.
~ The functions of the supreme council of elders included settling disputes, deliberating on day to day activities, administering justice and handled disputes, inheritance disputes and acted as a final court of appeal. It also officiated over religious ceremonies
~ The age set system provided the community with warriors who defended the community from external aggression.
~ Religions leaders like prophets influenced the political administration for the Ameru.
~ Their system of government alternated between two organizations namely, Kiruga and Ntiba every fourteen years and each had its own army regiment.
The Akamba
The Akamba are of the eastern Bantus who settled in Chyulu hills, Mbooni, Kitui and Machakos.
Social organization
~ Like other Bantus, the Akamba were organized into clans whose members claimed commondescent.
~ The Akamba practiced exogamous marriages. However their tradition allowed the adoption of an outsider into a clan
~ Wrongdoers among the Akamba were banished from the community if they refused to compensate for the wrong did.
~ There existed no institutional age sets among the Akamba though boys and girls were circumcised before reaching puberty. The initiates were then taught community secrets after two years from circumcision (at 14 years)
~ At puberty, both men and women were allowed to marry and bear children with the father of a young family automatically becoming a junior elder until his children were ready to be circumcised.
~ He then moved to the next grade only after paying a bullock and several goats.
~ The top two grades formed the administrative council of the community mainly dealing with the ritual ceremonies.
~ The Akamba believed in the existence of a creator called Ngai or Mulungu whom they prayed to through ancestral spirits.
~ The Akamba had ritual experts who included medicine people that guided them in their rituals.
~ Shrines also existed where offerings and sacrifices were made by the elders called Atumia ma ithembo. (Mostly found at a place with two large fig trees.)
~ The Akamba had many social ceremonies which were accompanied with festivity dance and music. For example, during harvest, weddings, deaths and birth.
Political organization
~ The smallest political unit among the Akamba was the homestead, (Musyi) comprising three to four generations of extended family with a stockade round the home of each married man. Outside the entrance of the homestead, there was an open space (thome), where men would sit and discuss political and other important matters.
~ Several related families formed a wider territorial grouping or clan with its own recreational ground, elder’s council (made of all the male elders), war leader and palace for worship
~ The clan was the main political unit for the Akamba.
~ There was also a larger territorial grouping above the clan called Kivalo that constituted a fighting unit. There was however no single central authority that united the Akamba the Kivalo was always disbanded after war.
~ Age grades and age sets were common to all in the community and acted as a unifying factor.
~ The elders in the community were ranked according to seniority.
~ Junior elders defended their community. Medium elders (Nthele) assisted in the
administration of the community. The full elders (Atumia ma Kivalo) participated in delivering judgements. The senior most elders (Atumia ma Ithembo) were involved in religious activities.
~ By 19th century, due to participation and gaining from trade, a number of people had gained prestige and followers to be regarded as Akamba chiefs or leaders. For example, chief Kivoi.
Economic organization
~ Due to variation in the environment, the Akamba participated in varied economic activities.
~ Those who lived around the fertile Mbooni, ulu and Iveti hills practiced farming. They planted sorghum, millet, yams, potatoes, sugarcane and beans.
~ Those who lived in the drier areas like Kitui practiced livestock farming and mainly transhumance during the drier period.
~ The Akamba were also hunters hunting for elephants, leopards, antelopes and Rhinos. They were gatherers who Collected fruits, roots etc.
~ They practiced trading activities e.g. they sold Ivory, feathers, shells hides, arrows, spearheads, to neighbours and the Arabs, Swahili traders.
~ The Akamba were skilled Iron –workers produced spears, arrow heads, hoes, knives.
~ The Akamba Practiced woodcarving making tools and shields.
~ They engaged in pottery, making pots, mats etc.
~ They were bee-keepers for honey which they sold.
~ The Akamba acted as middlemen during the long distance trade.
The Abagusii
They originated in the Congo Forest like other Bantus and settled in the fertile highlands of Kisii, Gucha and Nyamira Districts of Nyanza Province.
Political Organization
The clan formed the basic political unit for Gusii communities. Each clan was made up of related families. Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, decided on inter-tribal marriages, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war. The council was known Abagata ba gesaku.The Abagusii also had chiefdoms made up of several clans, which United to counter-attacks from their neighbours. Each chiefdom was headed by a chief (Omugambi), assisted by a councilof clan elders.
The elders acted as ‘middlemen’ through whom people could communicate their wishes and grievances to the chief. The position of the chief was hereditary.The Omogambi presided over religious ceremonies. He led clan members in communal sacrifices and social activities such as the planting and harvesting of crops. He also performed political functions.After circumcision, the boys joined the age-set which acted as a military wing responsible for the defence of the community.The Kisii still practice most of the political features discussed above.
Social organization
The Abagusii lived in family unit, headed by a family member, called the family head. Several related families formed a clan, headed by clan elders who formed a council. The role of the council of elders was to settle disputes between families.A number of clans formed sub-communities headed by clan elders. Circumcision of boys and girls formed part of the initiation rites for the Abagusii. The initiates were taught the values and customs of the society after which they were considered adults.The initiated boys were organized into age groups and age-grades. An age-grade was made up of people who were circumcised together. Members of the same age-grade treated one another as real brothers and helped each other in times of need.They believed in the existence of a supreme god, ‘engoro’ who was the creator of everything. They offered sacrifices to him during special occasions like initiation ceremonies and religions festivals and when there were problems like illness and draught. They worshipped him through their ancestral spirits.Diviners and seers among the Kisii were special people and were called Omoragori.
Economic organization
~ The Abagusii practiced crop farming. They grew many food crops including maize, sorghum, yams, peas, beans, millet, cassava, bananas and sweet potatoes.
~ They also kept livestock, cattle, goats and sheep were kept for meat and milk. They also kept poultry.
~ Trading was also a main economic activity among the Abagusii. They traded with their neighbours especially the Luo and the Abaluhyia. The Luo supplied them with livestock, cattle, salt, hides, fish, drums, and poison for arrows, spears and potatoes. In return, the Abagusii supplied the Luo with grain, hoes, axes, spears, arrowheads, razors, soapstone, soapstone dust, baboon skins, pipes, bowls and carvings of animals and birds.
~ The Abagusii were also involved in iron-working, which they kept secret to avoid competition from their neighbours. They made iron implements such as hoes, spears, axes and arrow heads. They also made ornaments.
~ They mined soapstone on the hilltops. They used is dust to decorate their faces during ceremonies. Some was sold to the Luos who used to decorate faces of their heroes. It was used for making pots, pipes, bowls and carvings.
~ They also depended on hunting and gathering to supplement the other economies. They hunted wild game for meat and skins. They also collected wild fruit roots and vegetables.
~ The Abagusii raided their neighbours for livestock. To date, they still raid the Maasai and Kipsigis for livestock.
The Mijikenda
The Mijikenda comprise of nine groups that had similar social, economic and political structures. They are believed to have arrived in their current settlement from Shungwaya.
Social organization of the Mijikenda
The Mijikenda were organized in clans comprising of related families.
~ The Mijikenda practiced circumcision. Only boys circumcised. Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included building huts and advising junior age -sets on how to raid.
~ They believed in the existence of a supernatural power that controlled their destiny. They called their God Mulungu.
~ The Mijikenda worshipped ancestral spirits. Prophets among the Mijikenda were called wafisi.
~ Marriage among the Mijikenda was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan). They practiced polygamy
~ There was division of labour among the Mijikenda. Children looked after livestock, young men built houses, cattle sheds, hunted and cleared bushes for cultivation..
~ The Mijikenda celebrated social ceremonies in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral..
Political organization
~ The Mijikenda had a strong clan system. Administration was based on a strong clan system. 4-6 clans lived in a fortified village known as kaya.
~ The existence of a council of elders(Kambi) at clan level to settle disputes and the general administration of the clan
~ An age set (riika) system formed by young men after circumcision and which provided the base from which warriors were obtained.
~ Social and political unity was strengthened through intermarriage between different clans.
~ Judicial matters were handled by the elders’ council which was final court of appeal.
~ The council of elders declared war on warring neighbors.
Economic organization
~ The Mijikenda kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and skin. Hunting and gathering was also done to supplement their food
~ They traded in the coastal trade with the Arabs and with the Akamba from interior.
~ The Mijikenda practiced salt mining which the used as a trading item.
~ The Mijikenda engaged in fishing along the coast as well as on rivers.
~ They practiced crop growing. They grew grains like millet, yams, sweet potatoes,
arrowroots, sorghum, coconut and cassava among other crops mainly for food while the excess were sold to neighbours.
~ They practiced craft making pots and weaving baskets using coconut leaves.
NILOTES
The second largest group in Kenya.
Social organization
~ There were slight variations in the social organizations of the various Nilotic groups in Kenya. However they shared institutions such as the clan-based organization, belief in one God, veneration of ancestral spirits, age-set system, social ceremonies and existence of religious leaders.
~ The family was the basic social unit in many communities. Several related families grouped together to form clans among the Luo, Maasai and Nandi.
~ They believed in one supernatural being. The Maasai referred to him as Engai while the Luo called Him Nyasaye.
~ The communities believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy.
~ There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communitiesduring religious functions and rituals. Some of the religious leaders had assumed political power by 19th c. For example the Orkoiyot among the Nandi and Oloibon among the Maasai.
~ The Maasai and other Nilotic groups had rain makers and diviners.
~ The age-set system was another common social institution. The age sets were formed by those who were initiated at the same time. The institution created a bond among the initiates that cut across the families and clans thus uniting the whole community.
~ There were social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death.
~ The Luo as their form of initiation extracted six lower teeth. The other groups practiced circumcision. In all the groups, the initiates were taught the community values.
The economic organization
~ The nilotes were nomadic pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat and blood.
~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours. The kalenjin traded with the Maasai and with the Luo and neighbouring Bantu communities like the Abaluhyia. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Bantu.
~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as arrow heads and spearheads. This skilled was borrowed from the Bantu.
~ The Maasai also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which they used for decoration and as a commodity for trade.
~ There existed variation in the economic activities within a single community like the Maasai. Some sections of the Maasai e.g. the Kwavi practiced crop growing i.e. growing grains and vegetables. The Purko were purely pastoralists
~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts.
~ Raiding other communities for cattle was also a common economic practice.
~ The Luo who lived near Lake Victoria practiced fishing. The Turkana also engaged in fishing on Lake Turkana.
Political organization
~ The Nilotic communities had a decentralized system of administration with all the communities organized on clan basis.
~ There existed councils of elders that administered and ensured maintenance of law and order, settled disputes between clans and other communities.
~ The nilotes had a warlike tradition. Each community had Warriors who defended the community and raided other communities. The Luo reffered to the warriors as Thuondi. The Maasai called them Moran.
~ The age-set system determined political leadership since all those initiated together formed one age-set for life.
~ The institution of religion influenced most of the political affairs of the Nilotic speakers. For example, the Orkoiyot among the Nandi and the Oloibon among the Maasai were primarily religious leaders who wielded political authority in the19th century.
The Nandi
By 1900 AD, the Nandi had already established their social, economic and political institutions.
Social organization
~ The family was the basic social unit. Several related families grouped together to form clans among Nandi. The family institution was very important in the community. It played an important role in the Kokwet (council of elders) and in the clan activities.
~ The age-set system was an important social institution among the Nandi. Nandi boys and girls were initiated at puberty through circumcision. Circumcision marked entry into adulthood. The initiates were taught the deepest community values during the period.
~ Age sets were formed by those who were initiated at the same time irrespective of the clans they belonged to. In total, there were eight age-sets among the Nandi namely Sawe, Maina, Chuma, Korongoro, Kipkoimet, Kaplelach, Kimnyinge and Nyongi.
~ The Nandi boys became junior warriors after circumcision. They only promoted to senior warriors after the Saket apeito ceremony (slaughter of bullock) that was done after every fifteen years.
~ Marriage within the same clan was prohibited among the Nandi. This was meant to create unity by encouraging intermarriages between different clans.
~ They believed in one supernatural being whom they referred to him as Asis, who was believed to be the protector of the community.
~ The Nandi believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy.
~ The community also had important religious leaders whose work was to lead the
community during religious functions and rituals, diviners and rain makers.The institution of Orkoiyot among the Nandi was borrowed from that of Oloibon among the Maasai.
Religious functions did the Orkoiyot of the Nandi.
~ He Mediated between God and the people/acting as a priest.
~ He presided over Offering of sacrifices to God on behalf of the people.
~ He advised and blessed the warriors before they went to war.
~ Blessing people before they undertook special activities like planting and
harvesting.
~ He foretold what was going to happen in the future. e.g. success or misfortune in
the community.
Economic organization
~ The Nandi were pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats for milk, meat, manure and blood. Cattle were a symbol of status among the Nandi and also a form of dowry settlement.
~ The Nandi cultivated crops such as Millet and sorghum due the fertile soils and favourable climate in areas like Aldai.
~ They also practiced hunting and gathering to supplement their food production.
~ The Nandi raided other communities for cattle. They acquired large herds of cattle through raiding neighbouring communities such as the Maasai. Abaluhyia and Luo.
~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours. The Nandi traded with the Maasai and with the Luo and neighbouring Bantu communities like the Abaluhyia. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Bantu. The Nandi however were self sufficient in food.
~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts.
Political organization
The family was the basic political unit. It was headed by a father who dealt with internal matters such as discipline, allocation of crops, land and cattle. In matters affecting the neighbourhood, he was assisted by the Kokwet (council of elders) which was made up of neighbourhood heads.Above the Kokwet was the clan organization whose council of elders tackled matters to do with grazing rights.Above the clan, there was a larger socio-political unit comprising different war groups located in the same geographical zone called a pororiet. This formed the highest political unit among the Nandi. The pororiet council of elders comprised representatives from different clansIts functions included negotiating for peace and declaring war .The Nandi boys became junior warriors after circumcision. They only promoted to senior warriors after the Saket apeito ceremony (slaughter of bullock) that was done after every fifteen years.
The Maasai
Social organization
~ The Maasai were divided into two groups; the pastoral Maasai(Purko) and the Agricultural Maasai(Kwavi or Iloikop).
~ The Maasai were organized on clan basis with each clan associated with a particular type of cattle. In total, the Maasai had five clans spread over large areas and not necessarily staying together.
~ Maasai boys and girls were initiated at puberty through circumcision. Circumcision marked entry into adulthood. The initiates were taught the deepest community values during the period.
~ After circumcision, the boys entered an age set to which they belonged the rest of their life.
~ The age set institution created a bond among the initiates that cut across the families and clans thus uniting the whole community.
~ All the boys initiated together also formed a warrior class called Morans and lived in special homesteads called Manyattas away from the rest of the community. For about ten years.
~ They were not allowed to take milk from their mother’s house and were required to adhere to ritual and dietary restrictions.
~ They believed in one supernatural being. The Maasai referred to him as Engai. Prayers and sacrifices were offered to him at the shrines.
~ There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communities during religious functions and rituals. They called their religious leader Oloibon.
Functions of Oloibon
~ He presided over religious ceremonies. / He was consulted on all religious matters.
~ He blessed warriors before they went to war.
~ He advised the council of elders.
~ He foretold the future events.
The Maasai and other Nilotic groups had rain makers and diviners.
There were several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. The Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of the Morans into junior elders. This ceremony is still practiced upto date.
Economic organization of the Maasai
~ The Maasai were nomadic pastoralists who kept Livestock like sheep, cattle and goats formilk, meat and blood..
~ They traded among themselves and also with their neighbours such as the Agikuyu, kalenjin and Taita. They sold animal products and red ochre in exchange for grains from the Agikuyu.
~ They practiced iron-smelting, making implements such as arrow heads and spearheads..
~ They also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which
~ They also practiced mining e.g. mined iron, salt and red ochre which they used for decoration and as a commodity for trade.
~ Some sections of the Maasai e.g. the Kwavi practiced crop growing i.e. growing grains and vegetables.
~ They practiced craft e.g. made pots, weaved baskets and leather belts.
~ Raiding other communities for cattle.
Political organization of the Maasai
The largest political unit amongst Maasai was the tribal section, which was a geographically distinct entity which operated as a nation, especially during ceremonies.
Affairs involving inter-clan cooperation were dealt within ad hoc meetings comprising age set spokesmen
Before a Maasai young man became an adult, he underwent the following four stages.
Boyhood (ilaiyak)
The youths at this stage looked after family and clan livestock until they reached circumcision stage at about 15 years.
Warrior hood (Ilmuran)
The stage was joined by young men circumcised together and comprised of ages between 18 and 25 years. They defended the community and conducted raids to boost the clan and tribal flocks. They had a military leader known as Olaiguani.
The stayed in isolation in manyattas undergoing military training in order to graduate into senior warriors. After that they were permitted to marry.
Junior elders
This was the political authority that evaluated the day to day issues of the community.
It comprised heads of households,, aim responsibility was to maintain peace and instruct warriors on how to handle issues in the community. They were permitted to own livestock.
The senior elders
They comprise the senior most age-set. Membership was determined by age and experience. The group performed religious functions and also was responsible for and dealt with difficult judicial and political decisions.The Maasai adopted the institution of Oloibon or prophet that combined socio-religious functions and later own assumed political authority. There were several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like circumcision, marriage and death. The Eunoto ceremony marked the graduation of the Morans into junior elders. This ceremony is still practiced upto date.
The Luo
Social organization
The family was the basic social unit among the Luo. The Luo community valued large families and therefore practiced polygamy.Marriage among the Luo was exogamous (no one was allowed to marry from their clan).
Several related families grouped together to form clans among the Luo.
They believed in one supernatural being whom they called Nyasaye. They prayed to Nyasaye.The communities believed in the existence of ancestral spirits, to whom sacrifices and libations were made to ensure they remained happy. Sacred shrines and trees existed. He rocks, high hills and even the lake were associated with supernatural power.There was the existence of religious leaders whose work was to lead the communities during religious functions and perform rituals. These included priests, medicine people, rain makers and diviners. For one to be a medicine person, a benevolent spirit called Juogi must possess him or her.The Luo youths as their form of initiation extracted six lower teeth. After that they were allowed to marry.The Luo had several social ceremonies that accompanied the rites of passage like marriage and death.
Economic organization
~ The Luo were originally a pastoral and fishing community. They Practiced livestock keeping for prestige and cultural purposes e.g. dowry and for meat and milk.
~ The carried out Fishing along water courses due to their proximity to the lake. Both men and women conducted fishing, which was a source of food as well as a trade commodity.
~ The Luo Traded with their neighbors. They sold pots, baskets, cattle, fish and livestock for grains, spears, arrows and canoes from the Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Kipsigis and Nandi.
~ They also Cultivated plants like millet, sorghum, etc
~ Most of them practiced hunting and gathering to get additional meat and hides and to supplement the food they produced.
~ They practiced craft. Women specialized in production of pottery products, baskets and clothes
Political organization of the Luo
The Luo were a decentralized community.
The family was the basic political unit among the Luo. The head of the family was referred to as Jaduong. Several related families made up a clan headed by a council of elders called Doho whose main responsibility was to settle inter-family disputes.
Below the Doho were lineage councils called Buch Dhoot that tackled domestic issues
Above the Doho was a grouping of clans called Oganda headed by a council of elders reffered to as Buch piny and headed by a chief elder called Ruoth. The Buch piny comprised representatives from each clan. It was responsible for settling inter -clan conflicts, declaring war and punishing criminals such as murderers.Religious leaders among the Luo also influenced politics. E.g rainmakers and diviners.One of the members of the council of elders was given a responsibility of advising the council on military matters and was therefore a war leader (osumba Mrwayi). Under them was a special group of warriors reffered to as Thuondi (bulls). Their work was to raided neighbouring communities like the Maasai, Nandi and Abagusii and other perceived enemies.
The Cushites
These were the smallest linguistic group in Kenya inhabiting the northern part of Kenya. They are a nomadic Sam speaking group. They comprise the Borana, Gabra, Galla (Oromo), Rendille and Burji.The communities developed complex social, economic and political institutions that were interrupted by the coming of the Muslims and Europeans.
Social organization of the Cushites
The Cushites had a patrilineal society, which means they traced their origins through the fatherThe Cushites believed in a common ancestor which makes their kinship system strong.All the Cushitic communities practiced circumcision of boys and clitoridectomy for girls as a form of initiation. This was a rite of passage into adulthood.After circumcision, the initiates were taught about their adult roles and their rights as members of the community.Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior age-sets on how to raid.Each age set had a leader with specific duties. They believed in the existence of a supreme god, who was the creator of everything. He was given different names. The Oromo referred to him as wak(waq).They also believed in spirits which inhabited natural objects like rocks and trees. The Cushites had shrines from which they prayed to their God. Later on, through interaction with their neighbours, all the Cushites became Muslims by the 16thc.The Cushitic speakers were polygamous and their marriage was exogamous in nature.Inheritance was from father to son among the Cushites. The elder son inherited the father’s property and shared it with his younger brothers. Girls had no right to inheritance.The Cushitic life was full of ceremonies. They celebrated life both in song and dance. There were songs for initiations, childbirth, marriage, harvest and funeral.
Economic organization
They had a diversified economic system that catered for their livelihood and supported their lifestyle.They basically practiced Pastoralism/livestock keeping in their semi-arid region – They kept cattle, goats, camel and donkeys. Camels and cattle provided milk and blood and were assigning of prestige. Goats and sheep provided meat. Some Cushites who lived along river valleys practiced substance agriculture where they grew grain crops, vegetables, dates, peas, pepper, tubers and bananas.They also practiced iron smelting and made iron tools e.g. swords, knives, bangles and arrow heads.They hunted wild game for food, ivory, skins (hides) for clothing, bedding and gathered fruits and roots and vegetables. They engaged in craft industry e.g. production of leather items such as handbags, belts etc.Some of them who lived near rivers and along the Indian Ocean practiced fishing.They traded with their neighbours e.g. the Pokomo and the Samburu.
Political organization of the Cushites
All the Cushitic communities like other groups in Kenya, had decentralized forms of government. The clan formed the basic political unit for all the Bantu communities. Each clan was made up of related families.
The social and political system of the Cushites was interwoven that the social divisions, age set system were also important aspects of the political system.Leadership of the clan was in the hands of a council of elders who played a pivoted role in solving disputes, acting as ritual experts, presiding over religious ceremonies, maintaining law and order and making executive decisions affecting the community like declaring war.Among the Cushites a clan was independent of others except when the wider community faced a common enemy or problem.The Cushites developed an age-set system that had some political significance. After circumcision, the boys joined the age-set after initiation to provide warriors who defended the community from external attacks and raid other communities for cattle.The age set system was based on about ten groups each with its own leader. At the end of an age cycle, a ceremony was performed and the senior age sets retired from public life and settled in different territories.
The Somali
The social organization of the Somali.Like Somali were organized into clans each comprising of families whose members claimed common descent. They also had an age set system. Circumcision marked an entry into an age set whose functions included defending the community from external attacks, building huts and advising junior agesets on how to raid. Each age set had a leader with specific duties. They believed in the existence of a supreme god, whom they referred to as wak (waq). He was the creator of everything. They had religious leaders who mediated between God and the people
Later on, through interaction with their neighbours, all the Somali became Muslims by the 16thc.The Somali valued marriage as an important institution. They were polygamous and their marriage was exogamous in nature.
Political organization of the Somali
The Somali had a decentralized political system of administration. The basic political unit was the clan made up of related families. The clan was headed by a council of elders in charge of day to day affairs of the clan e.g. making major decisions and settling disputes and presiding over religious ceremonies.The Somali had an age set system and all male members of the society belonged to an age set. Each age set performed specific roles/duties. From the age set system, there evolved a military organization for community defence. Initiates joined the age set system after circumcision. With the advent of Islamic religion political organization changed. They now had community leaders called sheikhs whose role was mainly advisory.The political system was now based on the Islamic sharia.
Economic organization
The Borana
They are a branch of the Oromo or Galla people who came from Ethiopia.
Social organization
The Borana had a complex social organization.The society was divided into clans led by elders whose responsibility was to settle disputes and maintaining law and order. Each clan was made up of related families. The borana had a strong belief in the extended family.The Borana were nomadic. But they had a residential section called the camp that consisted of a few huts of related families. .In the camps, it was the most senior married and competent man who became the head of the camp (abba olla). He would have his wife’s hut built on the extreme left.The Borana had a complex age-set structure called Gada. Each Gada was headed by the most powerful individual among the group members (Abba boku). His duty would be to preside over village meetings, proclaim laws and preside over religious ceremonies.The community had two kinship groups that practiced exogamous marriage.. A man from the Gona kinship would only marry from the Sabbo kinship. Polygamy was allowed.The family among the borana was headed by a man referred to as Abba warra with the wife as the female head of the household (Hatimana)
There was division of labour in the society. The men defended the camps, wells, herds and shrines. They dug wells and organized raiding parties. The men also elected leaders of camps, age sets and Gada class. The women performed household duties, wove baskets for carrying children, prepared leather and built houses. Boys herded sheep, goats and cattle. Elders presided over the court cases.The borana worshipped a powerful God, the creator whom they called Wak (waq). He was worshipped through religious leaders
They had a patrilineal society where inheritance was from the father to the son, and specifically the first son, angafa, who would then redistribute the inherited cattle to the younger brothers.Their culture was full of ceremonies. For example, there were ceremonies when a Gada class entered or left a Gada grade, there was war ceremony (butta) and a muda ceremony in honor of the kinship leader, kallu.
Economic organization
Political organization of the borana
Their political system was based on the kinship system where the society was divided into clans comprising related families. There were two moieties (kinships) that were further divided into sub-moieties. The sub-moieties were further divided into clans.
Each moiety was headed by a hereditary leader known as kallu. The kallu of the Sabbo for example came from the dyallu clan of the karrayyu sub-moiety.The kallu’s camp was the spiritual and political centre of the group. His duties included leading in ritual ceremonies, providing judgment in major conflicts between clans.He was elected together with the council of the Gada leaders of each gad class when it prepared to enter a new grade.The kallu were not authorized to bear arms or defend themselves but were to move in company of other members of the society.The borana society was divided into clans led by a council of elders whose responsibility was tosettle disputes and maintaining law and order. Each clan was made up of related families who lived in a residential section called the camp that consisted of a few huts of related families. .Powers were distributed equally between the two moieties at all levels such as in the Gada class, age-set and camp councils as well as in tribal ceremonies.The complex age set system mainly provided a military base for the society. The age sets, Hariyya, were recruited from boys of the same age. Gada class (Luba) was recruited genealogically. There were eleven grades through which the Gada classes passed from birth to death, with each grade lasting eight years. While age set members were of the same age, Gada members were of varied ages.
The age sets formed the age set council that recruited the warriors.Members of the Gada classes formed the Gada council (lallaba) which the responsibility of making decisions for their classes. They also resolved conflicts between non-relatives and mobilized economic activities such as digging wells, organizing societal rituals and ceremonies and directing relatives with their neighbours such as the Oromo and Somali.The councils contributed to the development of an effective political organization.The complexity of the borana institutions strengthened unity among them. However, the coming of the colonialists in the 20th century heavily impacted on these nomadic pastoral community.
CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO THE 19TH C.
The early contacts were initially at the coast but later spread inland. The early visitors included the Arabs, Greeks, Chinese, Persians, Portuguese, British, French and the Dutch.
The East African coast
The existing documentaries and archaeological evidence about the historical information on the east African coast include;
~ The Graeco- Roman Documentary which only makes indirect references to the east African coast.
~ The Swahili chronicles written by the people of the coast. E.g the Kilwa chronicle gives account of achievements of coastal rulers before the arrival of the Portuguese.
~ The writings of Pliny, a Roman Geographer who wrote about the high cost of trade with India in his book, The Natural History.
~ Periplus of the Erythrean Sea; by a Greek merchant in 1st C AD describes the people and places along the coast and the Indian Ocean Trade. (Erythrean Sea Trade).
~ Geopgraphia by Claudius Ptolemy makes reference to east African coast and the trade along Somalia and Kenyan coasts.
~ Christian Topography of Cosmos Indico of the 6TH C describes the trading activities on the coast of East Africa.
~ Renowned travelers like Al-Mosudi, Al Idrisi and Ibn Battuta wrote firsthand accounts about the places they visited and the people they met at the coast in the 10th C AD.
~ The existing archaeological evidence in east Africa include the remains of pottery , iron tools, beads and coins which prove the presence of international trade.
Early visitors to the east African coast upto 1500.
Due to the great accessibility of the east African coast, there was widespread interaction between it and the people from the outside world. This was also aided by the monsoon winds that blew vessels / ships to the coast between November and April and took them away between may and October. The earliest visitors were the Egyptians, Phoenicians and Indonesians.Others who came later on included the Greeks, Persians, Romans, Chinese, Arabs, Syrians, Indians and the Portuguese.
The Greeks
Their coming to east Africa is accounted for by the quarrels between the Seleucid rulers in Greece and the Ptolemaic Greeks in Egypt over control of the land route to the east through the Mediterranean lands.The rising demand for ivory made the ptolemies venture into the red sea and finally into the east African coast. Evidence of Greek existence on the coast is the Ptolemic Gold Coin found near Dar es Salam.
Romans
In AD 45, Hippalus, a Roman sailor using monsoon wind knowledge reached the red sea and entered the Indian Ocean. The Romans were keen on breaking the Arab monopoly over trade.Evidence of trade between the Romans and the coast is in the writing of a Roman Historian Pliny (23-79AD) who points out the high coast of trade between India, Arabia and china.The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th c AD affected international trading network in the Roman Empire.
Persians
They were mainly immigrants from Shirazi on the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf. Their adventure into the east African coast happened during the reign of the Sassanid Dynasty(224-636AD), which was determined to rebuild the Persian Empire that had been destroyed by the Macedonian Greeks, through wealth amassed from international trade.
By the 6th c, the Persians were trading in India and later china, controlling the red sea and parts of Egypt and Arabia.They got involved in the east African trade and even established ruling dynasties9 e.g. the (Shirazi Dynasty) at the coast. They intermarried with the locals and introduced Islamic religion.They were later overthrown by the Arabs. The succeeded in introducing Bowls of glass, swords, beakers and pots to the coast.
Chinese
They visited the coast in the middle ages. This is evidenced in the work of the Chinese authors during the Sung Dynasty (960- 1279 AD) and Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), who referred to the east African coast as Tseng- Pat or Pseng- Po.There has also been evidence of Chinese coins dating to 700 AD at the coast.The last Chinese fleet must have reached Mogadishu in 1430AD. The Chinese brought in Silk cloth, porcelain bowls and plates in exchange for Gold\, leopard skin, Rhino Horns and tortoise shells. Porcelain remains have been found at the coast.
Arabs
The earliest Arab settlers to arrive were the Daybui from Daybul In north western India. They arrived along the east African coast by AD 650 for trade. The earliest Arab settlement was Qanbalu (Pemba). They later settled in manda, Kilwa. Lamu and Mombasa.The Arabs reffered to the Africans as the Zenj (Blacks)
Factors that facilitated the coming of Arabs to the east African coast.
~ The Indian ocean provided the highway through which the traders traveled
~ The traders had the skills of harnessing the monsoon winds (trade winds) they knew what times of the year to come to the coast and what times to go back.
~ The traders had marine technology e.g. they had ship-building technology and knew how to use the compass for navigation of the ocean
~ They ensured the control of the red sea was in their hands to bar the enemy from attacking them
~ The ports of southern Arabia were good calling places on their journey between the east and the west.
~ The deep harbours at the coast were ideal for their ships to anchor, refuel and get supplies.
Reasons for the coming of the Arabs
~ They wanted to trade and control the commercial activities along the east African coast.
~ Some Arabs came as refugees, fleeing from religious and political persecutions in Arabia.
~ They came to spread their religion, Islam.
~ Some came as explorers to explore the east African coast.
~ Some came to establish settlements along the east African coast.
Trade between the East African coast and the outside world
There is sufficient evidence of the existence of regular trading contacts between east African coast and the countries in the Middle East and Far East.
Development and organization of the trade
~ The earliest foreign traders must have been the Romans who traded with the Indians in the Far East. They made stopovers at the east African coast for ivory whose demand had grown tremendously.
~ Muslim Arabs acted as intermediaries in the Indian Ocean trade between the Indians and the Romans. They also exported frankincense and myrrh among other things.
~ Traders from Persia, Arabia and Syria brought glass beakers and bowls, swords, pots, grains, sugar, cloth and beads in exchange for palm oil, tortoise shells, ivory and slaves.
~ The Greek, roman and Chinese traders brought porcelain bowls, daggers, swords, pottery, cowrie shells, glassware, beads and silk in exchange for ivory, rhinoceros horns, bee wax, tortoise shells , coconut oil and mangrove poles. Cowrie shells were obtained from Maldives islands while spices came from Spice Island.
~ East Africa also exported leopard skins, gold, ostrich feathers, copal, copper and iron. Ivory was used in Asia to make bangles, bracelets, piano keys and for decorations
~ The traders relied on the monsoon winds to blow their ships to and from the east African coast.
~ The Indian Ocean trade was conducted through the barter system but later coins were used as a medium of exchange. During barter, the foreigners bartered their goods with gold, ivory and slaves. Seyyid said later introduced copper and silver coins.
~ The middlemen in the trade included the Arabs and Swahili who organized caravans to the interior to acquire local goods which they sold to traders at the coast.
~ As there was no common language spoken, trading was conducted silently, hence the name ‘silent trade’
~ Capital for the trade was provided by the Arabs. Later the Indian banyans started giving credit facilities to the traders which increased the volume of trade.
~ The sultan of Zanzibar provided security to the Arab traders, enabling them to penetrate the interior to acquire goods.
~ The trade stimulated development of towns along the coastline. E.g Rhapta (probably located between pangani and Dar es Salam), Essina and Sarapion were the earliest towns to grow. Lamu Malindi Mombasa, pate and Brava also developed.
~ The merchants settled at various places on the coast and on the islands and interacted with the locals leading to development of the Swahili culture. Factors which promoted the Indian Ocean trade.
(a) Availability of items of trade from the east African coast and foreigner countries. For example, ivory, slaves, cotton and porcelain.
(b) The high demand for trade items from the coast by consumers from the outside world was also a promoting factor. This was caused by the uneven distribution of resources. Foreign items were also on demand at the coat.
(c) The existence of enterprising merchants in both the foreign lands and the east African coast led to promotion of trade links. The Akamba, Mijikenda, nyamwezi and Swahili middlemen for example played a pivoted role in the trade.
(d) The existence of local trade among Africans which acted as a base upon which the Indian Ocean trade was developed.
(e) The accessibility of the east African coast by sea. This enabled the foreigner traders to reach the region across the Indian Ocean.
(f) The existence of the monsoon winds facilitated the movement of the vessels which made it possible for the traders to travel to and from the coasty.
(g) The existence of peace and political stability at the east African coast created a conducive atmosphere for business transactions. Where there was need, the traders were given security by the sultan of Zanzibar.
(h) The existence of natural harbours along the coast ensured safe docking of the trade vessels for fueling and off-loading.
(i) The advancement in the ship building technology in Europe gave great advantage to the traders. This made water transport reliable and regular.
(j) The existence o the Indian Banyans (money lenders) who gave credit facilities enabled many more people to join the trade.
Impacts of the trade on the peoples of east Africa
(a) The trade led to intermarriage between Muslim traders with the local Bantu communities giving rise to the Swahili people with a distinct culture.
(b) There was emergence of Kiswahili as a new language of the coastal people. The language is a mixture of Bantu and Arabic languages.
(c) The trade led to the spread of the Islamic culture along the coastal region. Stone buildings were constructed, new dressing styles arose (women began to wear buibui while men wore kanzus), new eating habits also evolved.
(d) The Islamic law, sharia was also introduced.
(e) Many Africans were converted to Islam. However the religion did not spread beyond the coastal region prior to the 19th c.
(f) New crops were introduced along the coast. For example, rice, wheat, millet, cloves, vegetables and fruits such as bananas and oranges. Cloth, cowrie shells and spices were also introduced.
(g) Profits derived from the trade were used to develop towns like Pemba, Mombasa, Lamu, Zanzibar and Kilwa.
(h) The trade led to the rise of a class of rich merchants exhibiting a high standard of living. African merchants who rose to prominence included chief Kivoi among the Akamba, Ngonyo of the Giriama, Mwakikonga of the Digo, Nyungu ya mawe, Mirambo and Msiri of the Nyamwezi.
(i) There was decline of the local industries like weaving and iron working which were affected by the influx of foreign goods like cloth fro India and iron tools from Asia and Europe.
(j) There was destruction of wildlife, especially elephant and rhinoceros due to the increased demand for ivory.
(k) The increased demand for slaves promoted warfare among the communities as many people were captured during slave raids. It also created fear while others lost their life during the warfare.
(l) Slave trade also disrupted African economies as able bodied men were captured leaving behind the aged, weak, and children who made little contribution. Many even died of starvation since they could not participate in food production.
(m) African population in the hinterland greatly reduced as many were sold into slavery.
(n) Money (currency) was introduced as a means of exchange to replace the barter system of trade.
(o) East African coast was exposed to the outside world through trade. This paved way for European imperialism later on.
(p) Trade routes led to the establishment of trade caravan routes which later were upgraded to by the colonialists.
The coming of the Portuguese
Since the 10th century Arabian influence along the coast had been strong. Most of the port towns along the East African coast had been built by Arab Sultans, who brought the Muslim religion to the coastal people.The Portuguese explorer and soldier, Vasco da Gama, was the first European to make contact with the people of the East African Coast. He had been paid by the King of Portugal to find a sea route to India.
The Portuguese at the East African coast 1500 – 1700 A.D
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to have contacts with the people of the East African Coast. They invaded the east African coast in 1498 at a time when the Ottoman Empire occupied most of the Middle East thus blocking the overland route to India from Europe.They were adventurous and in search for the sea route to India. This led them to the East African Coast where they stayed for 200 years.
Reasons for the coming of the Portuguese at the East African coast
Portuguese conquest of the coast 1500-1510 (Stages of conquest) Steps taken by the
Portuguese to occupy the East African coast.
~ In 1497 King John 11 sent Padro da Covillha on a land journey to India to gather information about the Eastern trades and the sea routes.
~ In 1498 Bathromew Diaz sailed around the Cape of Good Hope, thus proving that there was a way round South Africa to the Indian Ocean.
~ Between 1497- 1499 Vasco da Gama at the command of King Emmanuel the fortunate of Portugal visited Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi on his way to India. He arrived in Malindi in March 1498 to a warm welcome by the locals.
~ He returned to Portugal in 1499 and gave a report of the flourishing Sofala trade, the Deep Harbour in Mombasa and the existing disunity of coastal people.
~ In response to Vasco da Gama’s expeditions, the king of Portugal sent fleets of ships to conquer the important trading towns of the East African coast.
~ In 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral attempted to capture Sofala with its Gold trade but he failed.
~ In 1502 Vasco da Gama came back with 19 ships aiming at capturing Kilwa because it was the most important and prosperous. He captured the palace, imprisoned the Su ltan and only released him when he accepted to pay tribute to Portugal.
~ From Kilwa he invaded Mombasa, which tried to get assistance from Malindi but since they were great rivals Malindi refused to give assistance, this disunity made the work of conquest easy.
~ In 1503 Ruy Laurence Ravasco was sent with a number of ships and forced the islands of Mafia and Zanzibar and other towns to pay tribute to Portugal.
~ In 1504, Lopez destroyed gold trade at Kilwa. Attacks were too much on the harbour that trade came to a standstill. But again the Arabs failed to unite to fight the Portuguese.
~ In 1505 Francisco D’Almeida arrived at the coast on his way to Gao where he had been appointed the first Portuguese viceroy (governor) of the Eastern Empire. With 1500 men and 20 ships, he attacked Sofala which surrendered without struggle because she was tired of Kilwa’s rule and therefore preferred the Portuguese to fellow Arabs. His forces continued northwards and attacked Kilwa. The Sultan and his followers took off to the bush while the Portuguese looted and burnt down the town before he departed to India. He also conquered Mombasa.
~ In 1506 – 1507 Tristao Da Cunha took on the Northern towns of Socotra, Oja, Brava and Lamu. Towns that submitted without struggles were only asked to pay tribute to Portugal. Malindi was even excused from paying tribute due to her friendship with the Portuguese.
~ In 1509 Alba quiqui captured the remaining towns i.e. the work of conquest was completed with taking the islands of Pemba, Mafia, and Zanzibar. Mombasa was burnt down.
~ By 1515 the Portuguese had succeeded in conquering most of the coastal towns, bring them under Portuguese rule. However towns like Gedi, Kilifi, Pate, Manda, Mombasa and Lamu continued with resistance. Mombasa was heavily attacked in 1528.
~ In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed.
~ Portugal finally brought all the coastal towns under her control establishing her
headquarters in Mombasa that had been subdued in 1589. in 1593, the Portuguese built fort Jesus
Why the Portuguese build Fort Jesus
~ Portuguese control of the east African coast as greatly supported by the conquest of Hormuz, which made it easier for them to control sea traffic in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Eden and Arabian Sea.
Why the Portuguese defeated the East African Coastal towns/Why the Portuguese were successful
Portuguese Administration at the coast
By 1510, the conquest of the East African coast was over and administration fell into the hands of the Portuguese. For easy administration, the coast was divided into two zones;
Both captains were answerable to the Portuguese viceroy at Goa on Indian coast at the General headquarters. Cape Delgado was made the midpoint of the East Africa possession. Sofala was made the regional headquarters but still under the charge of the captain who took his orders from the viceroy at Goa. Later, the Captain in the North was stationed at Mombasa after the construction of Fort Jesus in 1593 because they were rebellious. Other forts and garrisons were established at Sofala and Kilwa.
The Portuguese captains were responsible for the collections of tributes from coastal rulers.
They imposed the customs dues on all imports and exports. They were also responsible for the suppression of rebellions on the coast. The Portuguese had problems with administration because they could not provide enough troops to all garrisons their strongholds.The Portuguese were more interested in gold trade in Sofala. Unfortunately, they failed to develop this trade because of the following;
~ There were wars in the mining areas between the Portuguese and Coastal people.
~ As a result the Portuguese were so cruel that any sign of disobedience was punished with maximum brutality to serve as a warning to others who might choose to rebel. This partly explains the unpopularity of the Portuguese on the coast. The Portuguese also applied the policy of divide and rule by setting one town against the other. For example Malindi against Mombasa.The relationship with the subjects was not good. They lived in isolation of each other by race and religion. The Portuguese established their own settlements, built their own churches and had their own priest. This could be the reason why their religion was rejected and hatred increased.In addition, the few Portuguese officials were corrupt, plundered and ordered destruction on the coastal town. All this earned them hatred and opposition from the people and it was not a surprise that they were nicknamed “AFRITI” meaning Devil.The Portuguese did not mix freely with Africans because they considered themselves to be a special race.During the Portuguese reign, the glory of the coastal states was no more. The high standards of living the coastal people had enjoyed were no more. The trade that had made them rich was declining. Many buildings were in ruins and there was widespread poverty and misery.
Reasons that led to the decline of the Portuguese at the East African Coast
(Problems/challenges they faced)
The collapse of Portuguese rule
~ In 1585, a Turkish captain, Amir Ali Bey, arrived at the coast as an envoy of the sultan of turkey to free the coastal towns from the Portuguese. Rebellion then broke out between 1585 and 1588 between Ali Bey, the Portuguese, and the people of Mombasa and Zimba warriors. The towns of pate, Siyu and Pemba were attacked and forced to pay heavy fines while manda was completely destroyed
~ As a result of their ruthlessness, the coastal people became hostile to the Portuguese.
~ Mombasa for example resisted the humiliation they got from the Portuguese appointedsultan
~ The sultan’s heir Yusuf was treated as a servant who resented the people of Mombasa
~ On 15thaugust 1631, during the Christian feast of Assumption in Mombasa, Sultan Yusuf stabbed the captain with a knife, killing him instantly. This sparked off a rebellion where many Portuguese were killed.
~ Yusuf posed a threat to the Portuguese rule until his death in 1637.
~ The people of pate also revolted in 1666. However, their ruler was arrested and exiled to Goa where he was executed
~ In 1622, the Persians drove the Portuguese from Hormuz. In 1650, the Portuguese were expelled from their bases in Muscat by the Omani Arabs under sultan Saif
~ Britain, France and Holland also began to compete the Portuguese in trade.
~ The final blow to Portuguese rule was attack by the Omani Arabs and the seizure of fort Jesus. The coastal Arab towns had appealed to their brothers in Oman for assistance against the Portuguese brutality.
~ In 1652, an Oman fleet sailed to pate and Zanzib ar, overpowered and killed the Portuguese.
~ In 1696, Imam Saif Ibn Sultan of Oman sailed to Mombasa with a large fleet and army. The Portuguese took refuge in Fort Jesus as battle raged on (about 2500 Portuguese men, women and children) the Portuguese were unfortunate as they could not get supplies to sustain the war with 3000 plus Arab soldiers with full packing of the coastal people.
~ In 1697, the Omani forces got access to the Fort and found most Portuguese afflicted with
disease. By December 1698, the Omanis penetrated the Fort only to find all except twelve Portuguese dead. This marked the end of Portuguese rule though they made a temporaryseizure of the fort in 1728 but were overpowered.
~ For the coastal people, it was however a mere change of guard from the Portuguese to the Arabs.
Results of Portuguese stay at the coast of East Africa
Positive:
Negative:
THE ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPACT OF OMANI RULE AT THE EAST AFRICAN COAST
The Omani Arabs (Imams of Omani) replaced the Portuguese as the rulers of the East African coast after the capture of fort Jesus in 1698.The new rulers initially administered the region through some Arab families;
~ The Mazrui (Mazaria) family which ruled Mombasa
~ The Nabahan Family which ruled Lamu.
The civil wars back home made it hard for the Omani Arabs to control the coast immediately. There were also threats of Persian invasion. Constant rebellion from coastal towns against Omani governors posed a serious challenge to Omani rule. Pate for example refused to pay tax and even murdered the imam’s messengers. Towns they were loyal to Oman were attacked.The Mazrui established themselves as independent rulers of Mombasa and ordered towns like pate, Pemba and Malindi to pay allegiance to them. Their greatest allies were the Mijikenda who promised them support in case of Omani attack.The struggle between the Mazrui and the Imams of Oman (1741-1840)
The coastal towns led by Mombasa resisted Oman’s conquest due to the following reasons.
The struggle
The appointment of Mohammed Ibn Azthman al Mazrui as the new governor of Mombasa coincided with the death of the Oman Imam Saif Ibn- Sultan of the Yorubi and his replacement with Ahmed Bin Said al-Busaidi.The new Mombasa governor refused to recognize the new imam and declared the independence of Mombasa from Oman. The sultan had him murdered and fort Jesus seized. A year later, the brother of the murdered governor recaptured the town and the fort. This became the century long struggle between the al-busaidi and al-Mazrui families.Taking advantage of the problems in Oman, Mombasa expanded her power and control over the coastal towns (she took over pate in 1807 and attacked Lamu in 1810). Lamu appealed to Oman for assistance.
Seyyid Said and the struggle
Further political changes happened in Oman. Seyyid said rose to power as the imam (Seyyid) of Oman. His father, the ruler of Oman had died in a sea battle in 1804 when he was only 13 years. His cousin Badr Ibn saif took over. In 1806, Said stabbed Badr to death fearing domination. With the assistance of the British he had entrenched his position as the Seyyid of Oman at the age of 15 years. The British even promised him support in claiming the east African coast.He then sent a governor to build a fortress in Mombasa and to order all towns to recognize the power of Oman. Mombasa’s new governor Abdullah Ibn Ahmed defied the order and even continued to attack Brava.
By 1817, Seyyid said had succeeded in freeing Pate from Mazrui rule. In 1822, with the help of Zanzibar, an Oman ally, he liberated Pemba and Brava from Mombasa. In 1823, he gained control of the Bajun Islands. He ordered that no town should trade with Mombasa.In 1824, the sultan of Mombasa offered Mombasa to become a British protectorate to protect him from the Oman rule. The new powerful position of Mombasa was however short-lived upto 1826 due to the terms of the Moresby anti-slavery treaty between Seyyid said and the British.The animosity between Mombasa and Oman continued. In 1837, there was a dispute in Mombasa over the succession to the vacant office of the Liwali. This became an opportune chance for Seyyid said to lure the members of the Mazrui family into fort Jesus where he killed them.
Seyyid Said; Sultan of Zanzibar 91840-1856)
After that Seyyid said consolidated his power and control over the coast as well as the interior of east Africa. He then transferred his capital from Muscat to Oman.
The transfer of the capital to Zanzibar from Muscat was due to the following reasons:
fresh water, adequate rainfall and fertile soils that favoured clove growing.
Zanzibar’s central position also favoured development of long distance trade.
struggles. Seyyid said appointed Liwalis to rule important towns. They were give the responsibility of collecting custom dues levied at each port. The Arabs in the local towns were allowed to rule themselves. Seyyid said was keener on the commercial empire than p olitical leadership. He stated “I am nothing but just a merchant”.
Seyyid said developed an economic programme based on agriculture and international trade.
The development of plantation Agriculture
Seyyid sad encouraged settlers from Oman and Zanzibar to take advantage of the fertile sols and good climate at the coast to settle in Mombasa. Malindi, Lamu and Pemba venture into agriculture.Plantation agriculture largely depended on slave labour.The people of Mombasa extended plantation agriculture into the mainland, acquiring land from the Mijikenda in exchange for gifts. They planted rice, maize, millet, beans, sesame and sorghum. Along the island, large plantations of coconut mango trees, cashew nuts and citrus fruits were developed. Grain plantations were developed around Malindi and Takaungu whose land was largely unoccupied and the orma were no longer a threat.
By 1870, about 1400 to 1500 slaves worked on plantation farms in Malindi which had become the granary of Africa producing all kinds of grains, mangoes, coconut, mangoes and oranges.Seyyid said also established a clove plantation in Zanzibar. He also encouraged people to grow coconut trees by putting in place a policy that for eve coconut tree cut, three were to be planted. Plantation agriculture intensified slave trade.
The Slave Trade in East Africa
Slave trade: The buying and selling of human beings
Slavery: The state of being enslaved: It’s a system where by some people are owned by others and are forced to work for others without being paid for the work they have done.
It involves capturing, transporting of human beings who become the ‘property’ of the buyer. The slave trade was one of the worst crimes against humanity. The trade was started by Arabs who wanted labour for domestic use and for their plantations. However, they were later joined by Europeans..
Reasons for the rise of slave trade
~ During the second half of the 18th century, France opened up larger sugar plantations on the islands of Reunion, Mauritius and in the Indian Ocean. African slaves were thus recruited from East Africa to go and work in those plantations.
~ Africans were considered physically fit to work in harsh climatic conditions compared to the native red Indians and Europeans. This greatly increased the demand for the indigenous people (slaves).
~ The increased demand for sugar and cotton in Europe led to their increase in price and therefore more labour (slaves) was needed in the British colonies of West Indies and America.
~ Strong desire for European goods by African chiefs like Mirambo and Nyungu ya Mawe forced them to acquire slaves in exchange for manufactured goods such as brass, metal ware, cotton cloth, beads, spirits such as whisky, guns and gun powder.
~ The existence and recognition of slavery in East Africa societies. Domestic and child slavery already existed therefore Africans were willing to exchange slaves for European goods.
~ The huge profits enjoyed by middlemen like Arab Swahili traders encouraged the traders to get deeply involved in the trade.
~ The suitable winds and currents (monsoon winds) which eased transportation for slave traders greatly contributed to the rise of slave trade.
~ The Legalization of slave trade in 1802 by Napoleon 1 of France increased the demand for slaves in all French Colonies.
~ The increased number of criminals, war captives, destitute forced African chiefs to sell them off as slaves.
~ The Oman Arabs contributed to the rise in the demand for slaves. This is because they acted as middlemen between the African Swahili people, the Portuguese and French traders. They therefore worked very hard to get slaves in order to obtain revenue from them.
~ The invention of Spanish mines in West indices increased slave demands to work in the mines.
~ The exodus of slaves from East Africa to Northeast Africa, Arabia and Persia contributed to the increase in the demand for slaves. It led to an enormous number of slaves obtained from East Africa being transported to other countries.
~ The movement of Seyyid Said’s capital to Zanzibar led to an increase in slave trade. This is because when Seyyid said settled in Zanzibar in 1840, he embarked on strong plans to open up slave trade routes to the interior of East Africa. This boosted slave trade, whereby the number of slaves being sold at the slave market in Zanzibar annually by that time, reached between 40000 and 45000 thousand slaves.
~ The outbreak of diseases like Nagana led to an increase in slave trade. This is because the beasts of burden (i.e. camels, donkeys, etc) could not be taken on many of the caravan routes. It therefore necessitated people themselves to be involved in the transportation of the trade goods and ivory. Such people included porters who were regarded as slaves, or free Africans who could sell their services in return for cloth and other trade goods.
~ Development of long distance trade that needed slaves to transport goods from the interior of East Africa.
~ Plantation farming increased in some areas, especially the clove plantations were slaves worked.
Organization of slave trade in E. Africa
The middlemen involved were;
Arab Swahili traders
African chiefs.
Ways of obtaining slaves
Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc
Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders.
Prisoners of war could be sold off.
Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders.
Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shoots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.
Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders.
Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs.
They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.
Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar.
Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the Arab Swahili traders. Slave journey: - Slaves’ journey was a difficult one. They moved long distances on foot.
Chained, whipped and sometimes killed on the way.
Had little food and water and experienced extreme suffering.
This is illustrated by a Quotation from Dr. David Livingstone’s Last Journal. London 1878:“We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead …we saw others tied up in a similar manner, and one lying in the path shot or stabbed for she was in a pool of blood. The explanation we got invariably was that the Arab who owned these victims was enraged at losing the money by the slaves becoming unable to march.”
~ The main slave market where slaves were auctioned was at Zanzibar.
~ The journey across the India Ocean was horrible.
~ Crowded in ships with hardly any space to breath. Ships carried anything from 250 to 600 slaves. They were very overcrowded and packed like spoons with no room even to turn.
~ Whenever they saw anti-slave trade people, slaves would be thrown in the ocean
~ As a result many died in the process.
Effects/Impact of slave trade on people of E. Africa
Positive effects
Negative effects
Abolition of slave trade
Reasons why it was difficult to stop slave trade
~ Slavery existed before in Africa societies that is to say, domestic slavery and internal slave trade, which provided a favourable situation for continuation of the lucrative slave trade.
~ The Abolition movement which had begun in Britain and her overseas territory first took effect in West Africa. The decline in West African trade encouraged the expansion of trade in East Africa especially with America and West Indies.
~ Slave trade was difficult to stop because of division of African tribes against each other .This meant that African tribes would find it difficult to unite together and resist the slave
traders, who raided their societies using organized bands of men.
~ Disregard of human life, many African rulers tended to put less value for the lives of their subjects whom they ruled for example quite often, a ruler of a tribe would easily order his warriors to attack the villages of his subjects and seize their property, kill some of them.
~ Active participation and willing cooperation of African chiefs and coastal traders who were making a lot of profits made the slave trade last for so long.
~ Many European countries depended on the products of slave labour in West Indies and America for example, British industries depended on raw sugar, raw cotton and unprocessed minerals from America which she was not willing to lose.
~ European slave merchants and Africans involved in the trade were blinded by the huge profits made from the trade.
~ There was smuggling of slaves outside the forbidden areas. Slave traders would pretend to sail northwards when sighted by British patrol ships but would change course after British navy ships had disappeared.
~ Other European countries refused to co-operate with Britain to end slave trade because they had not yet become industrialized, and therefore they still benefited from it for example Portugal and Spain.
~ The only economic alternative of slave trade was Agriculture which was not reliable compared to the booming slave trade.
~ The anti slavery campaign was too expensive for Britain alone to compensate slave owners.
~ Stopping slave trade in the interior was difficult because Arabs were in control of large areas.
~ The East African coastline was long which delayed the anti-slavery group penetration in the interior.
~ Due to the tropical climate, most British personnel were affected by malaria which hindered the stopping of Slave trade.
~ Seyyid Said and Barghash were always unwilling to end slave trade at once due to fear of losing revenue and risk of rebellion by Arabs who found it profitable.
~ The anti-slavery group was small compared to the East African Coast.
~ European powers continued with slave trade, they shipped the slave cargos in to ships bearing American Flags.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade
It was the British government that began the abolition of the slave trade during the years,1822 – 1826 . This was because of the pressure by various groups based on different factors;
chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rou sseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
Steps in the abolition of slave trade
The movement to abolish slave trade started in Britain with the formation of Antislavery movement. The British government abolished the slave trade through anti slave laws (Legislation), treaties and use of force. The Anti – slavery movement was led by Granville sharp, other members were Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce and others.
~ The first step was taken in 1772 when slavery was declared illegal and abolished in Britain. The humanitarians secured judgment against slavery from the British court.
~ In 1807, British parliament outlawed slave trade for British subjects.
~ 1817 British negotiated the “reciprocal search treaties” with Spain and Portugal.
~ Equipment treaties signed with Spain 1835 Portugal 1842 and America 1862.
~ In E. Africa in 1822 Moresby treaty was signed between Captain Moresby and Sultan Seyyid Said it forbade the shipping of slaves outside the sultan’s territories. British ships were authorized to stop and search suspected Arab slave-carrying dhows. ~ In 1845, Hamerton treaty was signed between Colonel Hamerton and Sultan Seyyid Said. It forbade the shipping of slaves outside the Sultan‘s East African possessions, i.e., beyond Brava to the north.
~ In 1871 the British set up a parliamentary commission of inquiry to investigate and report on slave trade in E. Africa.
~ In 1872 Sir Bartle Frere persuaded Sultan Barghash to stop slave trade but not much was achieved.
On 5th March 1873, the Sultan passed a decree prohibiting the export of slaves from main land and closing of slave market at Zanzibar. Zanzibar slave market was to be closed within 24 hours.
~ 1876 the Sultan decreed that no slaves were to be transported overland.
~ 1897 decree left slaves to claim their freedom themselves
~ 1907, slavery was abolished entirely in Zanzibar and Pemba.
~ In 1927, slavery ended in Tanganyika when Britain took over from Germany after the 2nd world war.
Effects of abolition of slave trade
Many ship owners diverted their ships from transporting slaves to transporting raw cotton and raw sugar from Brazil and America.
Development and organization of long distance trade
Local trade refers to the exchange of goods among members of a community.
Regional trade involves exchange of goods between a community and her neigbouring communities.Long distance trade was the exchange of trade goods between communities over long distance, for example between the east African interior and the east African coast.
The organization of long distance trade
~ The communities that participated in the long distance trade were the Akamba, Swahili, Arabs, Yao, nyamwezi, Mijikenda and Baganda.
~ The trade developed because of the demand for ivory in Europe and the United States of America, slaves for plantation agriculture at the coast and in Mauritius and reunion sugar plantations
~ Ivory and slaves from the interior were exchanged for cloth. Utensils, ironware, zinc and beads at the coast.The system of trade were barter.
~ The middlemen included the Mijikenda and the Akamba who obtained slaves and ivory from the interior. The Akamba adopted the long distance trade after the outbreak of famine in 1836 and due to the central location of their country.
~ The Akamba organized caravans that left for the coast on weekly basis to sell ivory, gum copra, honey, bees wax, rhinoceros horns and skins. They had prosperous traders like chief Kivoi who is remembered for organizing the trade.
~ They set up markets and routes in the interior.
~ The source of slaves and ivory extended as far as Mt. Kenya region, Baringo and the shores of Lake Victoria.
~ The trade led to the development of Mombasa and Lamu as important market points.
~ The Waswahili and Mijikenda traders were also used in the trading caravans to the interior.
~ By 1860s, Arabs and Swahili traders started penetrating to the interior of Kenya as far as Uganda.
~ In Kenya, the main trading centres were taveta, Mbooni hills, elureko in Wanga and Miazini near Ngong and along Lake Baringo.
~ By 1870, the Akamba dominance in the trade declined as a result of competition from the Arab and Waswahili traders who began penetrating into the interior to get goods from the source.
~ Movement between the interior and the coast was carried out in caravans along well defined routes.
~ The trade routes became insecure due to the Oromo and Maasai raids.
~ The abolition of slave trade also affected the long distance trade.
~ In Tanganyika, the Yao, nyamwezi, Arabs and Waswahili were great traders. The Yaoexchanged tobacco, hoes, and animal skins at Kilwa with imported goods like cloth and beads. They were also the principal suppliers of ivory and slaves to Kilwa. The Yao were the most active long distance traders in east Africa.
~ The Arabs and Waswahili traders organized caravans into the interior and set up markets and trade routes. They were given security by Seyyid said who signed treaties with Chief Fundikira of the Nyamwezi to allow the Arab traders to pass through his territory.
~ They established interior Arab settlements at Tabora which became the centre of Arab culture.
~ The nyamwezi organized trading expeditions under their chiefs upto the coast with ivory, copper, slaves, wax hoes, salt and copra. They returned with cloths, beads and mirrors. They established trade routes such as the route from Ujiji via Tabora to Bagamoyo. They travelled to Katanga in DRC for iron, salt and copper. By 1850 nyamwezi merchants such as Msiri , and leaders like Nyungu ya Mawe and Mirambo played a key role in the trade development.
~ When the Arab and Waswahili traders arrived in Buganda, the kabaka welcomed them because he needed their goods such as beads, cloths, guns etc. He also wanted assistance in aiding his neighbours. E.g the invasion of Busoga in 1848 was assisted by the Arab traders. From the raids to Bunyoro, Toro, and ankole and Buvuma and Ukerewe islands, the Baganda acquired cattle, ivory, slaves and grains which the sold to the Arabs.
~ The Khartoumers also practiced long distance trade. They raided the northern part of Uganda for ivory and slaves.
~ Arab and Waswahili traders ventured into the Bunyoro kingdom by 1877 for ivory.
~ There were three main trade routes that linked east African coast and the interior;
MAP OF EAST AFRICA SHOWING TRADE ROUTES
Effects of the Long distance trade on the people of East Africa
Development and organization of international trade
The east African coast also participated in international trade during the 19
Th century with traders from different countries such as USA, Britain and France.
Factors that facilitated the development of international trade
Consequences of international trade
CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES IN EAST AFRICA
Introduction
Christian missions were organized efforts to spread the Christian faith for the purpose of extending religious teaching at home or abroad. Their coming of Christian missionaries to East Africa and Africa in general was based on a number of motives which were humanitarian, economic, political and social in nature. The Portuguese were the first to introduce Christianity to the east African coast in the 15th c.This attempt however had little success. By the 19th century, a number of missionary groups worked in East Africa and these included;
Reasons for the coming of Christian missionaries in East Africa
Kenya while Johann Redman was the first to see Mt. Kilimanjaro.
Missionary Activities in East Africa
The pioneer missionaries in East Africa were the Church Missionary Society led by the Germans John Krapt and Johann Rebmann who arrived in East Africa around 1844 and 1846 respectively. Krapt arrived and established a mission station at Rabai.
When they realized they were not making any great impact at the coast, the two moved into the interior visiting the Akamba and Taita. The CMS set up stations in Taita and taveta.They were the first Europeans to see Mount Kilimanjaro in 1847. Krapt discovered the source of River Tana and was the first European to see Mount Kenya in 1849.
In 1949, Jacob Erhardt, a Germany explorer joined them and became the first European to draw a crude map of east Africa fro then stories he heard from traders.
In 1862, the united Methodist Church led by Thomas Wakefield arrived from Britain and settled at the coast. They established a station at Rabai. They also set up mission stations at Jomvu and Lamu. They were able to convert some people among the Mijikenda.
In 1863, the University Mission Society to Central Africa moved to Zanzibar where a mission was started from Re-union and later to Bagamoyo. Cardinal Lavigerie’s formation of the White Fathers Mission in Algeria (1863) extended to other parts of Africa. In 1875, Freetown Mission a centre for freed slaves was established. By 1889, about 1400 slaves had settled in Freetown. In 1877, the Church Missionary Society mission arrived in Buganda while the white fathers arrived in 1879. In 1891, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland arrived in Kenya and began their work at Kibwezi in Machakos. In 1898, the Church of Scotland Mission arrived at Kikuyu and set up a mission station at Thogoto. Members of the African Inland Church from the United States of America established their station at Nzaui in Machakos. They then spread to Kijabe, Nandi, Kabarnet and Nyakach in Nyanza. The catholic missionary societies, like the Holy Ghost Fathers and the Consolata Fathers arrived in Zanzibar but later moved to Mombasa in 1890 . They advanced interior and founded stations among the Akamba and among the Agikuyu towards the end of the Century. The Holy Ghost fathers established a station at St Austin’s near Nairobi in 1899 while the Consolata fathers from Italy opened a station in Nyeri in 1907The Mill Hill Fathers reached Kenya from Uganda.In 1902, the Friends Missions arrived at Kaimosi. By 1914 there were many missionary societies working in western Kenya. For example, the Seventh Day Adventists, the Quakers (Friends Mission) and the Church of God Mission. The roles of these missionaries varied enormously depending on the colonial context and their relations with the colonial authorities.
Missionaries in Tanganyika
The missionaries here enjoyed the support of the sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Said.
At Zanzibar, the Roman Catholic missionaries began to follow the lead of CMS in taking interest in East Africa. The CMS began a freed slave centre at Freetown in 1875 where the freed slaves were taught Christianity and formal education. The slave villages later became Christian outposts. The CMS finally reached Uganda in 1879 where they were later joined by the White Fathers from Tabora and Ujiji.In 1863, a group of missionaries from the Holy Ghost Fathers arrived from Reunion where they had been working among freed slaves and began their work in Zanzibar. They also began a freed slave settlement at Bagamoyo. By 1885, they had set up five villages that were to act as Christian outposts
Missionary work in Tanganyika was motivated by the reports given by Dr, David Livingstone on the horrors of slave trade.In 1863, the University Mission Society to Central Africa under Bishop Tozer moved to Zanzibar where a mission was started from Re-union and later to Bagamoyo. Dr.Livingstone of UMCA also worked I Ujiji in 1871 where he met with Henry Morton Stanley, a journalist who had been sent to look for him.
In 1875, the London Missionary Society set up a mission post around Lake Tanganyika.
Missionaries in Uganda
The pioneer missionaries were the members of the CMS based in Tabora, Tanganyika.
The first protestant missionaries were sent from England in 1876 after a letter that was sent by Henry Morton Stanley confirming Kabaka Mutesa I’s invitation. They came in through Tabora and Usukuma and reached Rubaga, mutesa’s capital in 1877 where they set up a church. In 1879, the Roman Catholic Missionaries and White Fathers followed also from Tabora and Kibanga.The Protestants and Catholics were supported by Kabaka Mwanga though he did not want them to work outside the capital and beyond the royal family. This arrangement did not favour Missionary work in Uganda.Soon there ensued rivalry between the Catholics and protestants. The kabaka had also embraced Muslims and African traditionalists to the level of generating the infamous religious and political conflicts that rocked the kingdom eventually leading to its colonization.Missionary work expanded upto lake Nyasa. For example the Scottish Mission of the Livingstone Mission and the church of Scotland Mission set upstatations around lake Nyasa in 1876.
Activities of Christian missionaries in East Africa
The following were the activities carried out by the Christian missionaries in East Africa.
Reasons for the success of missionary work in East Africa
Converts could now teach in their mother tongue and therefore overcame the language barrier.
Christianity. African initiatives to Africanize Christianity encouraged its growth in East Africa..
near Mombasa where skills like carpentry, and agriculture were taught. Such communities thus looked at missionary work as “a life- saving mission”
Problems faced by missionaries in East Africa
Christian missionaries in East Africa were faced with various problems which clipped their activities at times. These include:
Frere arrived in East Africa (1873) Rebmann had only 6 converts.
Effects of missionaries in East Africa
(a) They spread Christianity and baptized many converts. Catechists were also trained who helped in the spread of Christianity for example, in Kenya by 1911 many people had been converted and many cathedrals and churches were built like the Kikuyu churches (Charismatic Arathi or spirit churches.)
(b) African religious beliefs, culture and traditions were despised and demoralized for example the birth and murder of twins, human sacrifice.
(c) They established hospitals and clinics which offered modern medicine plus research in tropical diseases like malaria, small pox, yellow fever and sleeping sickness which had claimed many lives. For example, the Mission Hospitals at Rabai, Thogoto, Kaimosi e.t.c. Dr Albert Cook built Mengo hospital.
(d) They introduced the European system of management and styles of dress and architecture which have been adopted by many people in East Africa today.
(e) They put to an end the inter-tribal or inter-village wars and established a stable and peaceful society under one faithful leader (centralization).
(f) They studied African languages and translated the Bible into various languages. For example Kraft translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili, Bishop Edward Steere based inZanzibar learnt and studied Swahili and translated books from English to Swahili, published the New Testament and the entire Bible in 1891.
(g) They established printing presses like Marianum press and published newspapers.
(h) They opened up primary and secondary schools as well as training collages for teachers and trade schools for craftsmen e.g. Alliance High School, Kisubi Vocational School. In the technical schools, carpentry and brick laying skills were obtained.
(i) A new class of elite emerged. Africans educated mainly in English and French emerged, these later served as doctors, lawyers, clerks, teachers, catechists, agriculturalists and priests who played a great role of spreading Christianity. For example, in 1890, Africans
were ordained as priests of the University Mission to Central Africa in Tanganyika.
(j) They paved way for the improvement of agriculture through establishing experimental farms and plantations where new crops, better methods of farming and equipment were introduced for example cotton was introduced by Kenneth Boroup in 1903 and Africans were taught how to use a plough and how to grow coffee.
(k) Missionaries improved communication and transport which in turn led to the opening up of the hinterland of Africa. The building of strong boats and ships gave Europeans courage to travel far from home.
(l) Missionaries destroyed local industries like craft industry e.g. blacksmiths, pottery work were all destroyed and replaced with European products e.g. manufactured items like cups, saucepans, etc.
(m) They contributed to the rise of nationalism. This was made possible through education where the African elite emerged and started demanding for independence e.g. Tom Mboya, Obote, Nyerere, and Kenyatta.
(n) They fought slave trade which was later abolished and equality and liberty for all was encouraged in East Africa.
(o) Mission stations were developed in towns like Rabai missionary station near Mombasa.
Role of Christian missionaries in the colonization of East Africa
launched attacks on the resisting Africans. African Lugard used old Kampala hill as a military base against Kabalega.
CITIZENSHIP
What is citizenship?
This refers to the legal right of a person to belong to a particular country. A Kenyan citizen is a person who has the legal right to belong, live and do freely all that has to do with their life in Kenya.
BECOMING A KENYAN CITIZEN
Ways in which Kenyan citizenship can be acquired.
Citizenship by birth
The following are the Ways through which citizenship by birth is acquired in Kenya.
Citizenship by registration
Conditions for qualification to apply for Citizenship by registration are as follows:
Revocation of citizenship
The revocation of citizenship by registration may happen under the following circumstances.
Citizenship by birth may be revoked under the following circumstance
a citizen by birth does not lose citizenship by acquiring the citizenship of another country.
Rights and responsibilities of a Kenyan citizen
Human rights
Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings.
Components of human rights
Every human right must fulfill these three fundamental conditions;
The constitution of Kenya contains the rights of the individuals and special groups such as children, the youth and people with disabilities. It gives the state the responsibility of guaranteeing these rights. The rights are contained in chapter 4 of the current constitution under the bill of rights. This chapter is not merely an integral part of the constitution of Kenya; it is the fundamental basis for the establishment of the state.Human rights and fundamental freedoms are recognized and protected in the constitution because they preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, and promote social justice
The rights and freedoms protected in the Bill of Rights
Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger.
People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right
Limitations of the right to life
A court of law can sentence one to death if found guilty of an offence punishable by death
Instances when the right to life may be taken away:
When one is defending one’s life or country as is the case during war.
When defending one’s property against violent attack.
When a law enforcement officer’s life is endangered, for example when apprehending armed criminals.
Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution.
Every person’s dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society.
This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment. Each citizen must also protect the freedom and security of others. It is unlawful for one to subject his or her spouse to either psychological or physical abuse.
No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work.
Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a person’s family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with.
Exceptions to this right:
The law allows police officers, tax inspectors and other government agents to search private homes or business premises for purpose of health inspection, tax collection or any other officially sanctioned reason.
Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities
Responsibility:
Those demonstrating must not interfere with peace of others for example through harassment of motorists and property destruction.
Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office. Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold officer responsibility.It is illegal to prevent other people from participating in elections, buy votes etc.
Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country.
Responsibility:
Citizens should not obstruct efforts of any citizen to move freely and reside and own property in any part of the country.
Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.
Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.Every person has the right to social securityEvery person has the right to education.A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.Nb-it is on the strength of this right that the government is providing free primary education.
Responsibility
Every citizen must pay tax.
Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.
Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests.Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services.
Responsibility
It is one’s responsibility to question the quality of goods and services being offered, to enable one get value for money.
The traders and other service providers have a responsibility to provide quality goods and services to fellow citizens.
They should give truthful information when advertising their products.
Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers’ association and participate in its programmes and activities
Responsibility
One must respect the right to fair labour practices of one’s employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property.
Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations.
The following are the obligations set by the government in order to achieve a clean and healthy environment:
Responsibility
Every person has a responsibility to protect and conserve the environment and ensure ecologically sustainable development, and use of natural resources.
Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship.One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of one’s belief or religion.A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion.
Responsibility
Every citizen must be careful not to infringe upon this freedom
This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research
Responsibility
In the exercise of this freedom, everyone is called upon to respect the rights and reputation of others. He/she should not spread propaganda with the intention t provoke others to war or to violence.
It is unlawful to engage in hate speech.
The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with the media.
Responsibility
The media industry should report impartially and avoid inciting members of the public.
The media should provide fair opportunity for the presentation of divergent views and dissenting opinions
Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person.
Responsibility
A person should not misrepresent the information accessed, or misuse it for selfish gain. It is also illegal to sell public information for monetary gain.
Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing.
Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.
This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper.
Responsibility
All citizens must respect this right. It is unlawful for one to deprive a person of his or her property without good reason.The state, in acquiring privately owned property must ensure adequate compensation granted promptly and in full
The state has an obligation to respect the intellectual property rights of the people of Kenya.
Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the person’s choice.Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite.
Responsibility
This right should not be used to undermine national unity.
Other citizens should be allowed the freedom to enjoy diverse culture, including members of one’s own family.
An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.It is wrong to deny one’s spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce.The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution.
Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices
Responsibility
The officers of the state have a responsibility to accord every person fair administrative action.The right requires that a person be given written reasons for any administrative action that will adversely affect a right or freedom of the person.
Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people.
Responsibility
Everybody has a responsibility to facilitate fair play and access to justice for all. Any action aimed at blocking justice is unlawful and invites punishment. For example, shielding criminals or attempting to bribe law enforcement officers to prevent them from arresting a criminal. Aiding a criminal to evade arrest, concealing criminal acts; and lying to help culprits evade punishment.
An arrested person has;
Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights;
Responsibility
A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner.
Responsibility
All citizens have a responsibility to ensure that the rights of those detained, held in custody or imprisoned are respected. For example the judicial staff , prison staff and the police should respect the constitutional rights of all persons without discrimination.
Fundamental rights that might not be limited:
Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya
responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are married to each other or not.
Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya
(a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to be addressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled
(b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities for persons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person.
(c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information.
(d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication.
(e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person’s disability.
Rights of the Youth in Kenya
(a) Right to access relevant education and training.
(b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life.
(c) Right to access employment.
(d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation.
Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya
Rights of older members of society in Kenya
Circumstances, which may force the Kenya government to limit the freedoms and rights of an individual.
Other responsibilities of a citizen
Values of good citizenship
Values and principles of governance in Kenya
Values of good citizenship
Importance of being a good citizen
NATIONAL INTEGRATION
What is National Integration?
Integration means unification into a whole. – The act of combining or bring together various parts in a way that makes them one.National integration refers to the process by which various components of a nation are brought together into a whole leading to national unity.
Importance of National Integration
Why is National Integration a priority in Kenya?
(a) National integration Helps in social and economic development through enhanced national unity.
(b) It develops a sense of national direction, facilitating unified goals and co-operation.
(c) It enhances political stability and security by eliminating suspicion.
(d) Promotes peaceful c-existence of different tribes and races hence leading to peace and harmony.
(e) Promotes collective responsibility due to easier, more efficient and accurate communication.
(f) It enables a country to develop a sense of direction as national goals are communicated to the people in the spirit of national integration.
(g) It leads to achievement of easier, more accurate communication as the nation increases efforts of national integration.
Factors that promote national unity in Kenya
There also the use of a common currency giving Kenyans a sense of nationhood. The policy of offering equal employment opportunities to all Kenyans has enabled Kenyans to work in various parts of the country where they interact freely.
Factors that undermine national unity in Kenya
The country regularly becomes polarized on party lines especially when we near general elections. Sometimes members of parties such as TNA, ODM, UDF, URP etc don’t see eye to eye during campaigns. There has also been discrimination on the basis of party membership.
Steps have been taken by the Kenyan government to promote national integration since independence.
Multipartism was inevitably reintroduced.
Conflict resolution
Conflict refers to a situation in which people or groups are involved in serious disagreements, or disputes.Conflict resolution refers to the process of settling a dispute when it occurs
Levels of conflicts found in Kenya
The factors that cause conflict
(h) Difference in views arising from background beliefs, social and political standing and values.
(i) Economic differences. E.g. when consumers feel exploited by businessmen, when employees feel exploited by employers. Etc.
(j) Political differences based on ideological orientation i.e. capitalism versus socialism.
(k) Social differences, for example tribal clashes, religious conflicts, racial discrimination, age/sex differences.
(l) Limited land/economic resources-unfair distribution of land, mineral resources, water resources, etc.
Peaceful methods of conflict resolution
Arbitration procedure:
Steps followed in mediation:
~ Step 1. The mediator explains the rules as a means of helping the two parties reach an agreement and not imposing a decision on them.
~ Step 2. Giving the two parties involved in the conflict chance to explain in their own words what the problem is. The Complainant explains first and then the defendant.
~ Step 3. The mediator, after listening, summarizes the stories from each party and also identifies the facts.
~ Step 4. The Mediator suggests the solutions and invites the two parties to give their opinions of the solutions proposed.
~ Step 5. Depending on the two parties’ reaction, the solution is looked at afresh and then an acceptable solution identified.
~ Step 6. The acceptable agreement reached is then written down and each party has to be committed to it.
Negative methods of conflict resolution
Under what circumstances violent method may be used in resolving conflict?
HISTORY FORM TWO NOTES
TRADE
Definition of trade
Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between people or countries.
Man must have started trading soon after the evolution of the homo sapien sapiens.
Trade was occasioned by the existence of varying environmental and climatic conditions. Trade arises from the basic human needs such as satisfying food requirements
Methods of trade
There are two main methods of trade;
This is the exchange of gods for gods. It is one of the earliest forms of trade that was even taking place during the reign of King Solomon of the Bible.Barter trade emerged from the natural needs of the people. For example, among the Kenyan pre-colonial communities such as the Maasai who kept livestock but did not have grains which the neighbouring kikuyu possessed. Barter trade sometimes even took place within the same community where some people had some special talents that others did not possess. E.g ironsmiths.A form of barter trade known as ‘silent trade’ was practiced in some areas where the two involved communities could not speak the same language. For example, it existed between Morocco and Carthage in 400 BC.Barter trade can still be witnessed in the modern society. For example, Kenya exchanges tea and coffee with petroleum, chemicals and machinery from other countries.
Barter trade however has the following disadvantages;
Advantages of barter system
This is a type of trade that involves the use of money.
Money is an item that is mutually recognized as a medium of exchange or a measure of value. In the pre-colonial times items like Gold dust, cloth, copper rods, and iron and cowrie shells were used as a form of currency.
Advantages of the use of money in trade
Money however becomes valuable only when those using it have confidence that it will continue to retain its value during the period it is in possession.Technology today has made the use of currency easier. There is the use of Visa Card and Mobile money services like Mpesa and Airtel Money to carry out transactions.Difference between barter trade and trade in which currency is used as a medium of exchange.
Local trade
This refers to the exchange of goods between people within the same geographical area such as a village or town.
Origin of local trade
This form of trade took place between groups of people who produced different goods mainly because of varying ecological conditions. It was motivated by the following factors;
Some seasonal markets emerged which enabled traders to meet and exchange goods on particular days of the week.
Factors that facilitated development of local trade
Impact of local trade
NB; the greatest danger to the local traders was that they risked being attacked by hostile communities and wild animals.
Regional trade
This refers to a type of trade between two distinct geographical regions
Characteristics of regional trade
~ It Takes place within a bigger geographical area.
~ It Involves intermediaries or middlemen between producers and the buyers.
~ The trade often covers long distances to and from the market.
~ It involves people who specialize mainly in trade as their means of livelihood.
~ Larger Varieties of goods are involved.
In regional trade there existed established markets but goods did not have to be sold on a particular market days like the case of local trade.
It also involved large volumes of trade as compared to local trade
Examples of regional trade included:
The trans-Saharan trade
‘Trans’ means across. This was therefore the exchange of goods across the Sahara between the peoples of North Africa (Berbers and Tuaregs) and the people of western Sudan (the darkskinned people who occupy the region south of the Sahara)
The West African kingdoms of Mali, Ghana and Songhai were involved in this trade.Development of the trans-Saharan trade. (8th-16thc AD)
Factors that led to the development of the trans-Saharan trade
The trade goods in the trans-Saharan trade
From western Sudan;
From the north
Organization of the trans-Saharan trade
Beginning of Trans-Saharan Trade was due to the fact that North Africa was rich in the salt that West Africa lacked while West Africa was rich in gold. The Trans-Saharan trade led to an exchange of salt for gold.The trade was between people of the western Sudan and Arabs from North Africa.Because of the long distance involved, the traders had to organize themselves very well. Traders travelled in large caravans of camels and traders to enhance their security.The rich traders from North Africa initiated the trade. They provided trade goods, camels and horses to middlemen who coordinated the trade.
The middlemen would contact desert guides known as takshifs who also acted as desert guards.They protected the traders and guarded the oases in the Sahara .The Tuaregs also provided the traders with security and acted as interpreters.The caravans usually departed from the north after the rainy season when sandstorms would subside for smooth travel. The traders made stops at the oases to refresh themselves and let their camels drink water.
They carried gifts for leaders of the communities along the route to appease them and as reciprocation for security while traveling through their kingdoms. Rulers of western Sudan offered service to the traders while they were in the territory.The trade was conducted in barter/ exchanging one good for another/ silent trade. Some of the caravan traders used agents who sold goods on their behalf in the interim period between their departure back to the north until the time they came back to western Sudan. The rulers of western Sudan controlled trade/regulated amount of gold to be sold . The traders paid taxes to the kings of western Sudan.The main items of trade were gold and salt i.e. from the west came gold, ivory, slaves, ostrich feathers, leather, kola nuts and pepper. From the north came salt, horses, weapons, iron implements, clothes, silk and beads. Arabs and Berbers financed the trade.The traders followed fairly defined route. The most important routes were as follows;
Challenges faced by the trans-Saharan traders
Impact of the trans-Saharan trade
Positive impact;
University of Timbuktu for example, teaching mainly Islamic syllabus, was one of the institutions that emerged as a result of the trade.
Negative impacts:
Decline of the trans-Saharan trade.
The trade reached its climax at around AD 8th c. by 15th c, the trade had declined due to the following reasons;
International trade
This is a type of trade that involves the exchange of goods between different countries in one continent or beyond the continent.
Examples of international trade include
The trans-Atlantic trade
The trans-Atlantic trade involved Europe, Africa and the Americas thus earning it the name Triangular trade. It was also called the trans-Atlantic slave trade because it involved crossing the Atlantic and the main commodity was slaves.The trade was fueled by the technological innovations especially in Spain and Portugal which facilitated sea transport.The trade happened at a time when the Europeans were keen on expanding overseas (15th and 16th c AD) for the following reasons;
existence in Africa.
geographical knowledge.
Origin of the trans-Atlantic trade
The exact date when the first slave was captured and sold was 1441 AD. Young Portuguese sailor named Ahtam Goncalvez captured a man and a woman on the Western Sahara coast whom he presented to Prince Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese king, thus setting off a chain of reaction in the trade. The Portuguese built a fort on the Arguin Island on the coast of Mauritania in 1445 which was used as a base for buying slaves and Gold. The suppliers of the slaves at the fort were the Moors.The Portuguese ventured into the gold coast in search of gold in 1471. They built a fort at Elmina in 1482.The Portuguese then established trading contacts with the king of Congo who even accepted Christianity and Portuguese culture. (He baptized his son Afonso Bemba Nzinga)
By 1500AD, the Portuguese established sugar plantations in the island of Sao Tome near modern Gambia. They relied on slave labour from Gambia.
Development and organization of trans-Atlantic slaves.
The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable three-legged trading pattern. European manufactured goods, namely cloth and metal wares, especially firearms, went to Africa where they were exchanged for slaves. The slaves were then shipped to the Caribbean and Americas from 1532 AD, where they were sold for cash or sometimes bartered for sugar or molasses. Then the ships returned to Europe loaded with American products.European ports of Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow in Britain, Bordeaux and Nantes in France, and Amsterdam in Holland were crucial in this trade.
The forts that developed in West Africa due to this trade were Elmina, Lagos, Whydah, Accra, Badagri, Sekondi, Winneba, Goree and Dakar. In the 16th c, the Portuguese emerged as the main suppliers of slaves to Spanish colonies, having been granted special licenses, asientos, by the Spanish monarchy.African slaves were more preferred by Europeans because;
The Dutch were among the first European nations to compete the Portuguese in slave trade.
For example in 1630, they wrestled the Elmina Fort from the Portuguese and captured Luanda in 1641. They were supplying slaves to new sugar plantations in the British Colony of Barbados and the French Caribbean colonies of Martinique of Guadalupe.
The British and the French used merchant companies to conduct the slave trade having been motivated by the fortunes the Dutch were making. e.g, the Royal African Company was granted charter in 1672 and began taking colonies to the British colony in Jamaica.
The original capture of slaves was almost always violent. As European demand grew, African chieftains organized raiding parties to seize individuals from neighboring societies. Others launched wars specifically for the purpose of capturing slaves
Factors that facilitated the acquisition of slaves
interior slave markets.
Ways of obtaining slaves
Two trading systems were used:
coastal baracoons or fortresses where slaves were kept in bulk as they awaited
shipment. This method was only used by chartered companies as t was expensive. It was also only viable in Dahomey where slaves were in large numbers.
Factors which led to the development of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
Dangers of Middle Passage
Suicide
Disease
The mortality rate averaged between 13 and 33 percent of the slaves and the crew. “If the Atlantic were to dry up it would reveal a scattered pathway of human bones marking the various routes of the Middle Passage.”.
This stimulated the development of trans-Atlantic trade.
Impact of trans-Atlantic trade on the people of West Africa
Economic impacts of slave trade
Decline of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
In 1807, the British government made a decision to abolish slave trade.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade;
TRANSPORT
Definition of Transport
Transport is the movement of people and from one place to another.Transportation is usually classified by the medium in which the movement occurs. For example, land, air and water transport.Transport can be categorized into traditional and modern means.
The means of transport at this category were land and water evolved.
Land transport
People move on land either by walking or by using other human powered transport. People also use domestic animals as a means of transportation
Human transport
Human powered transportation included carrying goods on their backs, heads and shoulders. Africans were used as porters during the slave trade. Human porterage still goes on in the modern society.
Limitation of human porterage
Human porterage was cumbersome, slow and tiresome.
Humans Carry limited amount of goods at particular time.
It is not convenient over long distances.
Animal transport
Early human beings used the domesticated animals to carry loads on their backs or pull carts. Such animals are referred to as pack animals.In 500 AD a paddled collar was devised that rested on the animals’ shoulders. In 200 AD saddles were introduced in Egypt. Horse shoes were introduced in 700 AD
Donkey\Ass
The first animals to be used as pack animals; they were used in Egypt as early as 3400bc to carry weight upto 80kg. They were commonly used in the trade between Nubia and South Sudan. In Ukambani today, donkeys are used to fetch water.
Oxen
Referred to as draught animals used for ploughing and pulling carts and also transportation of goods and people.
Horses
They were first rode but were later trained to pull wagons, chariots and passenger coaches. In the Roman Empire, they carried soldiers during war. (Soldiers on horseback are referred to as cavalry.
Disadvantages of horses
NB; – horses are mainly reared by the rich as a symbol of high social status.
Mules.A crossbreed of a horse and a donkey, they are sterile and carry loads upto 110kg.they are mostly used in mountainous areas in central and southern Europe and in Mexico.
Camels
It is referred to as the ship of the desert.
What makes a camel ideal in desert transport?
Camels were commonly used during the trans-Saharan trade. They are in use in Kenya today among the Galla and Somali carrying weight upto 200kg.
Llamas and alpaca.
Members of the camel family found in central and south America. They carry load upto 40 kg.
Elephants
They are used in Asia to carry people and heavy loads upto 250kg. In India, they were used to transport people and goods during war in 2500BC.
In Africa they were used in warfare in 270BC.
Water Buffalo.
A member of the cattle family and the only type of buffalo that has been domesticated. The cape buffalo of Africa and the Pygmy buffalo of Philippines have not been domesticated. It isused to pull ploughs and do other heavy work in India and south East Asia.
Reindeer
A long-horned deer family breed used in the cold parts of Canada, Sweden and Norway for riding and transportation. It also provides milk, meat, hides and horns.
Dogs
Dog types like Bouriers were used to pull small carts and sledges, especially in the Arctic thus making transportation of gods and people easy. Dogs are also used in guiding blind people in sports and as pets at home.
Advantages of animal transport
Disadvantages of animal transport
The wheel
The wheel was invented in sumeria at about 3000bc. By 2500BC, they had invented the spoked wheel used on horse drawn chariots. The chariot was used in Mesopotamia at around 2000BC and later spread to Egypt, Persia, Rome, china, Africa and Europe.
The cart or wagon pulled by humans or animals was the first wheeled vehicle. The wheeled wagons and carts created the need for roads
Today many types of wheels are in use. For example, the steering wheel for cars, turbines for jet engines and gyroscopes used in the automobile pilot technology.
Ways in which invention of the wheel impacted on road transport
Water transport
Water transport has progressed from early rafts and canoes to the modern large passenger and freight ships.
Rafts
A raft is a simple floating structure, usually made by tying together floating material like animal skin, papyrus stalks or logs. The earliest people to make rafts were the Australians. They made rafts called catamaran by tying logs together. Long poles were then used to drive the raft.Rafts however sank easily and required a lot of manpower upstream. A canoe was a narrow boat that was propelled by one or more paddles. The oldest canoe was made by stripping the bark from trees (bark canoes). Later a new canoe was made from a hollow on a log (dug-out canoe).In Kenya, canoes are used for transporting people and goods and for fishing in inland lakes and rivers.
Oar-driven boats
Boats are small vessels for travelling on water and are powered by oars, sails or motor. The Egyptians pioneered in the building of boats that used oars (a short wooden pole with a flat end) instead of paddles in 3000BC. The Phoenicians, Greeks and the Romans developed oardriven trading vessels and warships.
Sailing ships.
Humankind learned that the wind could move a boat more easily than human beings if the ship had a piece of cloth fixed on poles (sail). The Egyptians used the sailing ships by 3000BC on the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Greeks made sailing ships known as galleys which were used for trade and war. They used war galley known as triremes to defeat the Persians and Phoenicians.Sailing ships were depending on monsoon winds discovered by Hippalus. The Arabs and Persians relied on the monsoon winds to reach the east African coast.The Portuguese invented a three-masted ship called a caravel as the one used by Christopher Columbus and other explorers to sail to America and the Far East. The Carrack used by Vasco da Gama was five-masted to sail to east Africa. Ferdinand Magellan became the first person to sail around the world using a Sailing ship
Fast sailing ships called clippers were made in 1840s in America. It was a long and narrow ship with sharp bows and almost straight sides.However, sailing ships could not sail on windy days and seasons. Some communities however still use sailing ships upto today for sports, fishing and leisure.By the 12th c AD, the magnetic compass was being used in navigation aid
Factors that led to the development of various forms of transport
Modern means of transport
Road transport
The invention of the wheel stimulated the construction of roads. The Roman soldiers built hard and straight roads all over Europe and North Africa by around 300 BC. The roads were built by digging a trench, 1.5metres deep which then would be packed with heavy stones or rocks. Rough and fine concrete was added to the foundation, then layers of gravel, chalk and cement. The road surface was slightly convex with deep trenches on the sides. Roman roads declined with the fall of the Roman Empire.Attempts to built better roads in Europe in the 18th c were made by George Wade (1673- 1748) built 400km of roads and John Metcalfe (17171-1810) built 290km of roads.However modern road construction is attributed to John McAdam (1756-1836). McAdam laid three layers of small broken stones packed tightly together. He then placed a layer of gravel which was bound together by the weight of a vehicle. These roads were called the flexible road or macadamized road. These roads were straight and had a smooth surface. They were widelyused all over the world. They have curved surfaces and had a Good drainage system. They are cheap and durable.The roads were later improved by adding tar to produce a water proof surface called tarmac. By 1820, Britain had built 200,000km of road.
Advantages of macadamized roads
The bicycle
In 1790, a Frenchman, de Divrac made the first bicycle which was pushed with the feet thus called a walkalong. A german named Baron Karl Drais invented a walkalong called draisine which had a steering bar connected to the front wheel.In 1860, Ernes Michaux, a French locksmith, invented a bicycle with two wheels and pedals attached to the front wheel.In 1866, Piere Allement a Frenchman, was given the first patent on a bicycle, boneshaker. It had iron wheels fixed to wooden spokes. In 1873, a bicycle named a high-wheeler was introduced in England. The firs bicycle in England was made by Kirk Patrick Macmillan of Scotland.James Starley is referred to as the father of the cycle industry. In 1870, he invented the tension spoked wheel in which the rim and the hub were connected by wire spokes.John Dunlop invented the tyre filled with compressed air in 1888 which replaced the iron tyres and solid rubber tyres.In 1893, a bicycle with a diamond shaped frame with a roller-chain-drive and a compressed air wheel was invented.The bicycle is today used all over the world not only for transport, but also for sporting and leisure activities. The advantage of a bicycle is that it easily used on narrow paths and on a fairly level surface. It is also cheap and convenient.
Motor vehicles
These are self-propelled power-driven land transportation devices used to transport people or goods, especially on land. The device converts fuel into energy to provide the power for the vehicle to move.The first attempt to power drive devices was the suggestion by a Swiss clergyman J.H Genevoisin 1760 that wind springs be used to move wheels on roads.However the making of an engine that could drive a vehicle is attributed to a French engineer, Nicholas Joseph Cugnot (1725- 1804). He built a three wheeled steam-driven vehicle in 1769, though he abandoned his experiment prematurely.
In 1883, a German, Gottlieb Daimler (1834-1900) produced a high speed petrol engine which he fitted on a wooden cycle in 1885. Karl Benz (1844-1929) fitted the same engine on a w tricycle in the same year.In 1886, Daimler made the first petrol driven car with four wheels. Benz built the first four wheeled Benz car in 1893. In the same year, an American, Charles Duryea (1862-1938) built the first gasoline powered automobile. The tyres made by Dunlop were fitted on these cars to make them more comfortable.The first car in the motor industry, Panhard-Hevassor, was made by a French company which had bought the rights to use Daimler’s engine.In 1903 in USA Henry Ford founded the Ford Motor Company in Detroit leading to mass production of cars in the world. For example the model TFord was developed in 1909.Students read more on the motor vehicle inventions.
Impact of road transport
Advantages of road transport
Disadvantages of road transport
Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 20
Rail transport
Railway lines are paths of parallel metal rails that allow a wheeled vehicle to move easily by reducing friction. Initially, they were used in 1800s to guide horse drawn wagons. Later the steam engine replaced horses as the means of transport.The development of modern railway was a gradual process that started in Britain and Germany with the use of wooden rails.A British engineer, Richard Trevithick (1771-1833) designed a steam engine that was small enough to be put on a truck. This he fitted on a railway locomotive which he had bought in 1804 to pull a cargo and passenger train in south Wales.
Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds built the John Blenkinsopp locomotive in 1812.
William Hedley built the puffing Billy in 1813.George Stephenson (1781-1845) a coal miner in Newcastle, England invented a locomotive engine called the Blucher which pulled eight laden wagons in 1814. He also built the world’s first public railway between Stockton and Darlington near Durham in 1825. In 1829, Stephenson and his son, Robert, built the most improved engine, the rocket, which had a speed of 48 km per hour. In 1830, he built the Northumbrian and the planet.In 1825, in the United States, Colonel John Stevens built a tiny experimental locomotive. In 1929, a major railway was built by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company to serve a coal mine.Germany and Belgium had railroads by 1835, Russia by 1837, Spain by 1848 and Sweden by 1856.In 1892, a Germany Rudolf Diesel designed a heavy oil-driven-engine which replaced the steam engine. It was cheaper and efficient.The first diesel railcar was used in 1913 in Sweden. Later diesel engines were replaced with electric engines which was an invention of the Siemens Brothers and John Hopkinson in Britain in 1883. The electric train from Paris to Lyon covers a distance of 212 km in one hour.Railway transport has remained a major mode of passenger travel. In Europe and Japan, major cities are connected by high speed passenger trains such as the French TGV (Train a’ Grange Vitesse) and the Japanese Shinkansen trains travelling at a speed of 300km/h.
Results of railway transport.
Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 21
Disadvantages of railway transport
Water transport
Canal vessels
A canal is an artificial river that is used to transport people and goods. It may be built to link a ricer and a lake, sea or a sea with a sea. Apart from transportation, their water may be used in irrigation like in the case of River Nile.Canals have been used for centuries for transportation. The earliest canal was built by the Europeans nearly 4000 years ago to link the river Nile and the Red sea.The longest canal, the Grand Canal in china is bout 1900km long and it links the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers.Canal building in Europe was pioneered by the Romans who built them for transportation, irrigation and drainage. The Dutch, British and the French also constructed elaborate canals.Canal building in the US began in 1817 and ended in 1825 with the construction of the Erie Canal which is 845 km long connecting Hudson River with Lake Erie. It is now known as the New York State Barge. Up to 1840, 4,800 km of canals had been constructed in USA.Another type of canals is the ship canals, for example the Suez Canal, Panama Canal and Kiel Canal, which are deeper. The Suez Canal in Egypt is 195 km long and links the Mediterranean Sea with the red sea. It was constructed between 1859 and 1869 by a French company under. Ferdinand Lesseps. The Kiel Canal links the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. The Panama Canal was built by the USA Government between 1904 and 1914 linking the pacific and Atlantic oceans. It is the most important canal as it shortened the long and dangerous trip around the southern tip of south Africa. The St. Lawrence Seaway is the longest and most important inland waterway system in North America. It is 3,800 km long and was completed in 1855 in USA and 1895 in Canada.
Steamships
Steamships were made after the invention of the steam driven engine. The first attempt to make a steamship was made by Dr. Denis Papin of France when he fitted a steam engine to a boat and sailed along river Fulda in Hanover. In 1736, Jonathan Holls of Gloucestershire patented a steam tugboat but it was nev er tried.In 1774, Comte J B d’Auxiron of France experimented with a steamboat but also failed like Papin as it broke down.In 1775, C Perier became the first person to move a small boat powered by steam engine o river Seine in Paris.The first successful steamboat was built and tried out in1783 by a Frenchman called Marquis de Jouffrey on River Saone near Lyons in France.
In America, John Fitch built a steamboat in 1787. It was used on river Delaware between Philadelphia and Trenton. In 1809, William Symington and Miller Pat succeeded in constructing a wooden steamship that was used on the Forh-Clyde Canal in southern Scotland.In 1807, in America, Robert Fulton had invented a double –paddle-wheeled steamboat known as Clermont which began operating on the Hudson River.
In1807, the phoenix became the first steamship that made regular voyage from Philadelphia to New York.In 1819, the savannah became the first ship equipped with a steam engine to cross the Atlantic Ocean.In 1853, the peninsular and oriental Line built the iron-screw steamer, Himalaya, the biggest vessel as at that time.John Elder invented a compound engine with two cylinders which reduced fuel consumption in steamships.
In 1838, Sirius sailed from London to New York, the Great Western, without using sails crossed the Atlantic in 15 days from Bristol.In 1839, the Archimedes and the Robert F Stockton were built using Smith’s and Ericcson’s patent.The most important ship to cross the Atlantic was the Great Britain built by the Islamabad Kingdom of Brunei in 1843.
The first USA trans-Atlantic steamers were the Herman and Washington.The first merchant ship to be all-welded without any rivets in its hull was the MS Fullagar in 1920.
Importance of the discovery and use of the steamship
Motor- Driven ships
With the invention of the internal combustion engine, oil replaced coal. The Caspian Steamer Wanal was built in 1903 was the first sizeable ship with an internal combustion engine.In the 20th c, the use of atomic energy (nuclear power) was developed. The first ship to use atomic power was the Nautilus in 1956. In 1961, an American merchant ship, MV Savannah, propelled by nuclear power was launched.There are two types of ships based on the service offered;
Modern passenger Liners
The cruise ship, the most important passenger liner, is a specially designed vessel providing luxurious surroundings and entertainment to passengers. It is about 270 m and carries 2000 passengers. New passenger Liners were developed after World War II for example the American United States of 1952 and the British Queen Elizabeth 2 of 1969.
The liners were overtaken by the development of the aeroplane and airline transport and only a few remain today.
Freight Vessels
These are Special Ocean going ships designed for carrying large amounts of cargo.
Containerships transport large metal containers that have been pre-loaded with cargo. Some container ships carry over 6,800 containers.
Military Vessels
In 1859, the French launched Gloire, the first iron-plated ship. During the American civil war (1861-1865), two iron-plated ships were used.
In world war II, battleships, Aircraft carriers (can carry 85 aircrafts) , cruisers, destroyers, destroyer escorts(frigates), minesweepers, torpedo boats, landing craft and other support vessels were developed.
Hydrofoils and hovercraft
These are specialized water vessels (a hydrofoil has small wing-like surfaces called foils attached to the bottom of its hull that lifts the hull out of water when the hydrofoil accelerates. A hovercraft is lifted entirely off the water surface by a cushion of air and are propelled by giant air propellers or by water jets)
Ferries
These are vessels used to transport people, animals and vehicles over water in places where bridges would be inconvenient or impossible to build.
Motorboats and personal craft
These are small boats that are used for recreational purposes with either out boat motors or in boat motors.
Pipeline transport
This is a form of transport used to move liquids, gases or solid liquid mixtures over long distances. The most common liquid that is transported by pipeline in many countries is water. Others are oil and gas. Pipelines are also used to transport solids suspended in liquids such as coal slurry which consists of powdered coal suspended in water.
Air Transport
This is the fastest form of transport over long distances and continents. Different types of Aircraft exist.
Aeroplane
An airplane is an aircraft heavier than air that uses wings to obtain lift in order to fly thus transporting people, mail and cargo from place to place. They are also use in warfare.
The development of an aeroplane started in 1783 when a successful manned flight was made in France by two brothers, Jacques and Joseph Montgolfier using a hot air balloon.
Sir George Cayley, an English scholar and inventor, built model Gliders that could sail in the air in the 19th c. Later, Pilcher added wheels to the gliders in order for them to be towed into the air. By 1850, power driven planes were built. An English engineer, John String built and designed power-driven planes. In December 1903, An American astronomer, Samuel Langleys almost won the honour of perfecting the power driven airplanes, by making a full size airplane called the aerodrome. The plane unfortunately crashed in Potomac River before being launched. On 17th December 1903, two weeks after Langley’s failure, the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, produced the first manned power driven aeroplane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina USA. Their machine was a wooden glider fitted with a petrol engine and two propellers. In 1906, a Brazilian-born aviation pioneer made the first officially observed European flight in a powered bi-plane.In 1909, Louis Bleriot of France became the first person to fly a plane across the English Channel in 35.5 minutes.
In 1915, the Germans used the first mono-plane during the First World War.
In 1919, John N. Alcock and Arthur W Brown flew non-stop across the Atlantic from New Foundland to Ireland.Later improvements in the plane were replacement of wood and cloth with aluminum and stainless steel, invention of a retractable gear that improved streamlining in planesBy 1920, plane speed had gone up to 303 km /h. in 1940; it was 755 km/h.The best known aviator in 1920s was Charles Linburgh who accompanied a non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 1927 in his single monoplane called the spirit of Saint Louis in 33 hours.In 1920, the first scheduled passenger service was made between Amsterdam and England by KLM Dutch Airlines.In 1930, the first pressurized plane was launched. The most popular passenger plane at that time was the DC-3 built by Douglas Aircraft Company. It had a capacity of 30 people and moved at a speed of 320 km.
The jet engine
The jet engine was invented by German engineers in 1939.the first jet powered airplane was the german Heinkel HE -178. The first practical jet fighter was the Lockheed P-8 developed in 1944.During the post war period, the jet engines were put to commercial use.. For example, the Boeing 707 flight which was launched in 1958 in USA. The Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet which entered the market in 1970 can carry 375 passengers, 20 tonnes of freight and move at a speed of 900 km/h.The Supersonic Loans Port (SST) is designed to fly at speeds of over 1180 km/h. the Russian TU-144 and the French – British Concorde are both SSTs and entered passenger market in 1972.
Helicopters
It is a type of airplane which obtains its lift from a set of rotor blades rather than fixed wings. The first successful helicopter was made in 1907 when a French helicopter left the ground for a few seconds.Germany made the first practical helicopter in 1936 while the United States Army unveiled its wartime helicopter in 1942.
Uses of helicopters
Lighter- than-air-vehicles
These include balloons relying on hot air and lighter than air gases like helium and hydrogen for lift.Airships that combine lighter than air gas bags with propellers navigation were initially used for passenger traffic but their usage declined due to several fatal accidents. For example the disaster that befell the German airship, Hindenburg, in New Jersey in 1937.
The rocket engine
Rocket engines use fuel. They carry chemicals which enable them to burn their fuel without air supply. The first rocket engine to be used was by a German manufacturer, Fritz von Opel in 1930. An American, R H Goddard also developed a modern rocket in Massachusetts in the USA. Factors which encouraged the development of air transport.
Results of air transport
1) Air transport is a major global employer. The air transport industry directly generates 5.5 million jobs globally and contributes USD 408 billion to global GDP. It directly contributed USD 1,830 billion to world GDP in 2007 and generated 79 million direct jobs globally – 2.8% of total employment.
2) Air transport is an important facilitator of international trade, thereby promoting economic growth and development. Forecasts suggest that the global economy will become even more dependent on trade over the next decade. World trade is expected to nearly double, rising at more than twice the rate of global GDP growth, with China, India and emerging markets leading the way.
3) Air transport stimulates Tourism which makes a major contribution to the global economy.The air transport industry plays a major role in supporting tourism. Over 40% of international tourists now travel by air, up from 35% in 1990. At the same time, the WTTC estimates that foreign visitors account for just fewer than 25% of overall tourism spending around the world. This includes spending by business travelers, as well as those on leisure trips or visiting friends and relatives.
4) Air transport is a significant tax payer. Unlike other transport modes, the air transport industry directly pays for its own infrastructure costs. The user charges collected by airport operators pay both for the day-to-day services they provide to airlines and their customers, and also for the massive investment in runways, terminals and other infrastructure required for a modern, efficient air transport service. In addition, companies in the air transport industry make significant tax payments to national treasuries.
5) Air transport expands the range of consumer choices and opportunities to visit other countries and to experience new cultures.
6) Air transport delivers humanitarian aid. Air services play an essential role in humanitarian assistance to countries facing natural disasters, famine and war – through cargo deliveries, refugee transfers or the evacuation of people trapped by natural disasters. They are particularly important in situations where access is a problem – for example, ‘air drops’ are among the first response of aid agencies to stem a humanitarian crisis.
7) Air transport also plays a vital role in the rapid delivery of Medical supplies and organs for transplantation worldwide.
8) Air transport provides access to remote areas. Air transport provides access to remote areas where other transport modes are limited. Many essential services, such as food deliveries, hospitals, education and post, would not be available for people in such locations without air services. And residents would be isolated from family, friends and business contacts.
9) Air transport has improved security as soldiers can be flown to troubled areas. Aeroplanes are also used in espionage
10) Air transport has led to improvement f space exploration. Satellites are used to study objects in space such as stars and planets.
11) Air transport has promoted international cooperation and understanding. People from different countries can exchange ideas..
12) It has provides the fastest means of transport for passengers and goods thus increasing cultural and social exchange.
13) Aeroplanes are used to break hail in order to cause rain.
14) Plans and other aircraft have added to variety to sporting and entertainment. E.g the staging of fighter plane shows in public holiday celebration.
15) Aircraft has revolutionized warfare especially during the Second World War when countries began using panes in warfare.
16) International terrorism has been facilitated in the recent past by aeroplanes. Incidents of planes being hijacked are becoming common in the world today.
17) Air transport contributes to environmental pollution due to waste discharged by the burning fuel. Jets cause noise pollution.
18) Air transport has enhanced agriculture as planes are used to spray and dust insecticides on crops in the case of large scale farming. They are also used in quick delivery of perishable farm produce from horticultural farms.
19) Planes assist in fire fighting, inspecting fence lines and power cables and border patrol.
20) Aeroplanes are used in making aerial survey in cartography thus improving map making.
21) Air transport enhances wildlife management and conservation. Counting of animals by wildlife officers is one used planes.
22) In meteorology, air transport has enhanced weather survey.
23) Air transport sometimes leads to deaths of many people when fatal accidents occur. For example, the mid-air blow-up of the trans World Airline plane over the Atlantic ocean in July 1996, the 5th may 2007 crashing of a Nairobi –bound KQ 507 moments after leaving Duala international Airport in Cameroon killing 114 passengers.
Space exploration
This is the attempt by scientists to reach the heavenly bodies namely the stars and moon to learn more about them and their importance to man as a whole.
Space age refers to the period in which the exploration of space became possible. It began with the launch of the first artificial satellite in October 1957 by the soviet union – Sputnik.The first human to go to space was a Russian Major Yuri Gagarin using Vostok I in April 1961. Inthe same year an American, John Glenn also went to space.Neil Armstrong, an American Became the first man to land on the moon in July 1969 in his space craft, Apollo II. He was accompanied by Edwin E Aldrin Jr and Michael Collins. Many other have toured the moon since then.Later on a space shuttle was built. The first space shuttle, Columbia, launched in 1981, carried two American astronauts, John W. Young and Robert L Crpens. In 1983, the space shuttle, challenger released a satellite into space. One of the crew members, Sally K Ride became the first woman astronaut to go to space.In 1984, Kathryn D Sullivan became the first American woman to walk in space .By 1988, there were 300 operating satellites in space while 1200 were not functioning.
Challenges facing space exploration
Such difficulties have been overcome through development of new tools and techniques for space navigation.
Importance of space exploration to man
Advances in transportation
Africa’s first high speed train system, the Gautrain, was officially lanced in Johannesburg on 8th June 2010 to connect the cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria with a 160 km/h rail service.
Effects of modern forms of transport
Negative effects of transport.
Communication
Definition
This is a Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange information but also create and share ideas and messages.Communication includes writing, talking and Non-verbal communication (facial expressions, body posture, or gestures.
Traditional forms of communication.
The methods of communication that were used in the traditional society included;
Gestures
These are signals or body movements intended to pass a message. The person to whom the gesture is directed must know the meaning of the gesture. It is sometimes referred to as sign language.(a combination of gestures that simulate actions or a sound)
Body language
Sometimes gestures are used to enhance and emphasize speech. They are used where silence is required yet communication is vital like in operating theatres, and in traffic control.
Verbal communication-language
This is the commonest form of communication among human beings involving the use of sound (spoken language) in combination with some gestures or alone, to express messages.There are over 6000 distinct languages world today.
Signals
The use plants on the roadsides, the shaving of hair, physical marks on one’s body or property are means through which communication is passed to others.
Fire and smoke signals
Fire and smoke signals were used to send quick and urgent messages. Fire and smoke signals were coded such that strangers could not interpret the message correctly. They were commonly used in warning people of an impending danger.The Jews used fire signals (torch light) to proclaim their feast days on mount Olives.Fire and smoke signals were always sent at night.
Advantages of using fire and smoke signals
Disadvantages of fire and smoke signals
Drumbeats
In drumbeating as a means of communication, each beat was coded for relaying different messages. For example there were different beats for ceremonies, announcing funerals, meetings, declaration of war, arrival of strangers and impending attack.Once the initial beat was heard, the other drummers could pick up the beat in different areas thus spreading the message very quickly.
Advantages of drumbeating
The major disadvantage of drumbeats was that at times it was difficult to differentiate the beats and therefore, the message could not be clearly interpreted thus leading to confusion.
Horn blowing
They were used to make public announcements, summon warriors or invite people to an important meeting. This was done by specialists with different tones that passed different messages thus passing a wide range of massages.
Screams and cries
Screaming was effective mostly on hill or mountain tops because of echoing. There were different ways of screaming in different situations.. Ululations signified feasting or good news like child birth.
Running messengers
Sometimes there was use of trust worthy runners for very personal and urgent messages.
However the accuracy of the message delivered depended on the memory of the messenger. An Athenian soldier, Phidippides, is remembered in history as a great messenger for covering great distance from Marathon to Athens. Unfortunately, he dropped dead shortly after arrival. The Marathon race is named in his honour.
Messengers are still used to deliver messages today although there has been tremendous improvement after invention of writing.
Disadvantages of using messengers
Written messages
The oldest record of writing date back to about 5000years. Different communities use different symbols and alphabets to write messages. The messages were recorded on scrolls, stone tablets parchment (dried animal skin) or paper.The earliest forms of wring were pictographic and ideographic. Examples of these were the cuneiform of Sumerians and Hieroglyphics of the Egyptians.
Cuneiform Writing
“Wedge-Shaped” Writing
Scrolls
Scrolls are rolls of paper which were rolled around rods of wood or ivory for writing on. They were commonly used among the Egyptians, Romans, Asians, Jews, Greek, Hebrews, Chinese and Japanese. Papyrus Reeds along the Nile were used for making writing material. Pens and brushes were also made from the reeds and the hard part of a feather.The Hebrews used scrolls for their sacred writings.
Stone Tablets.
The Sumerians wrote on clay tablets. Writing was done on wet clay which, after drying, hardened like a stone and left a permanent impression.. for example, Hammurabi the law giver wrote his laws on stone pillars for all to read and obey. The Ten Commandments were also written on stone tablets.On the left is a stela, which has all 282 of Hammurabi’s laws engraved on it. This stela is located in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France.
These tablets have been discovered by archaeologists and looked at by historians.
Advantages of written messages
Limitations
Modern means of communication
Numerous modes of communication have been evolved over time since the time primitive speech was the main means of communication. The modern means of communication include telephone, radio, television, video, cinema, telegraph, telex, electronic mail. Pager etc.The methods are categorized into telecommunications and print media.
Telecommunications
This is a term that describes the technology of receiving and sending messages by telephone, radio, television, telegraph, telex, facsimile or e-mail. The message can be verbal, written or pictorial.There are a wide range of devices in telecommunication through which messages can be sent in a variety of ways. For example, Telephone.
This a communication device which is used to relay sound waves by converting them into electrical signals and then reconverting them into sound waves. Telephones carry sound over a distance using electric current. The history of the invention of telephones starts with the success of a Scottish-born American inventor, teaching speech to deaf children in Boston Massachusetts, Alexander Graham Bell, who built an experimental telegraph which broke down after one day. Bell constructed a transmitter and a receiver for which he received a patent on March 7, 1876. Assisted by Thomas Watson, he discovered that voice can be sent using wires.Later, Almon Brown Strowger of Kansas City, Missouri, invented the first automatic telephone exchange using electromagnetic switchboard (Strowger Switches) in 1897. By 1900, long distance service was possible through the use of repeaters (electromagnetic devices placed along the route of the call) which amplified and repeated conversations into the long distance instrument.
Radio transmission later replaced underground and submarine cables for long distance transmission.In 1877, Graham Bell opened the Bell Telephone Company. In 1900, it was sold t o the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) In Kenya, telephone communication was introduced in 1908 and has grown tremendously
Cell phones
A cellular telephony is a type of wireless communication which uses many base stations to divide a service area into multiple cells.The concept of cellular phones began in 1947 when researchers looked at the crude mobile car phones and realized that by using small cells with frequency reuse, they could increase the traffic capacity of mobile phones
Dr Martin Cooper, a former general manager of the systems division at Motorola is considered the inventor of the first modern portable handset. Which he used for the first time in April 1973.The development of mobile telephony technology was slow in the earlier periods due to the hindrance by the strict federal regulations in USA and Europe. In 1921, the USA mobile Radio began to operate.In June 1946, the first American Commercial mobile radio telephone service was introduced in Saint Louis, Missouri.By 1950s, the first telephone equipped cars took to the roads in Stockholm.In 1964, the Bell system introduced the mobile telephone service. By 1982, commercial cellular phones were being used in the USA and Tokyo in Japan. By 1987, USA had over 1million cellular telephone subscribers.Currently, there are many mobile manufacturing companies are now in operation. For example, Nokia, Motorola Inc., Sony, Alcatel, Samsung, Sagem, Siemens, AG, and Sony Ericsson.There are also a number of mobile phone service providers. In Kenya, the main ones are Safaricom, Airtel, Orange and Yu
Standard Features of cellphones
The following features are not standard and vary from phone to phone.
Limitations of cell phones
Television
The a public broadcasting medium that uses a point to multipoint technology to broadcast to any use within the range of the transmitter. In 1855, the idea of a television was perceived but only came into use in 1922 when a Scot, Loggie Baird, showed how moving images could be transmitted by electromagnetic waves.In 1931, the cathode ray tube (CRT) was invented in USA. The CRT transforms beams of electrons into visible images on the screen. This led to development of modern television.The first television broadcasting service was launched in 1936 by BBC.I 1942, Baird invented the colour transmission.In Kenya, broadcast television began after a television station was opened in 1970. This was the Voice of Kenya. Kenya was connected to worldwide television via Longonont Satellite Station in1972. In 1990, KTN, the second channel was introduced in Kenya
Cable Television
Cable television, a commercial service that links televisions to a source of many different types of video programming using Coaxial cables, was introduced in Kenya in 1994. The television users with personal satellite dishes can access satellite programming directly without a cable installation.Recently, the digital television (DTV) was invented. This is the transmission of audio and video of digital signals, in contrast to analog signals
Television is an important means of communication since it is an audio-visual device.
Its importance can be summarized as follows;
Disadvantages.
Radio.
The invention of the radio was a significant development in the electronics industry. In 1864, an English mathematical physicist, clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) suggested that there was the existence of waves.In 1888, a German, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, (1857-94) demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves (vibrations) that travel through space, which were named after him. These waves could be used in wireless communications. In 1901, an Italian, Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) invented the radio and sent a radio transmission across the Atlantic from poldhu in Cornwall to Saint John, Newfoundland, Canada.The radio gained prominence during the World War I as it was used to communicate.The Marconi Company made the first radio broadcast in Britain in 1920.The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) was set up in London in 1922.Kenya’s Radio Broadcasts before independence depended on the BBC. The VOK began to air programmes after independence. In 1990, VOK changed its name o KBC. In 1995, the FM meter Band was launched thus leading to an increase in radio stations
Importance of radio
Telegraph
This is a device or process by which messages are passed over a distance, especially using radio signals or coded electrical signals.Telegraph messages are sent by a code in which numbers, letters and punctuation marks are represented by a combination of dashes and dots.The earliest code to be used was the Morse code which evolved into the international Morsecode.A message sent by a telegraph was called a telegram.
Radio invention made it possible for wireless telegraphy.Samuel Morse (1791-1892) is credited for the invention of the electric telegraph. In 1837, Morse made the first crude telegraph and by 1844, he successfully sent a telegraph over line.By 1845, the first public telegraph was operating between Washington and Baltimore.In 1851, the first telegraph cable was laid under the English Channel between London and Paris.In 1866, the Trans-Atlantic cable was established.In 1872, most cities in the world were linked by telegraph.
Disadvantage.
~ Communication through the telegraph could be rendered unreliable where
accidents and poor weather could cut telegraph cables.
Internet.
This is a computer-based global communication network system that links thousands of computers using telephone lines. Currently Mobile phones are also used in internet communication.Internet forms one of the inexpensive and fastest communication means in the world today which has gained popularity..Internet was introduced in the 1970s. Currently there are over 4000 million users of internet in the world today with its popularity being manifested in the social media networks like facebook, Twitter.
Results of internet.
E-mails first came into widespread use in 1990s and has today become a major contributor to business development. It has taken the lead ahead of telephone, fax, radio and television in communication.
Facsimile transreceiver (fax)
This is a method of transmitting text over telephone network. A written, printed or pictorial document is scanned then sent and reproduced photographically at the destination. The message /picture is transmitted within 30 seconds. The Fax machine was developed by a german named Arthur Korn in 1902 and was commercialized in 1926.
Telex
This is system of direct dial teleprinter which uses a keyboard to transmit typed text over telephone lines to similar terminals
Satellites
A Satellite is a spacecraft or an artificial device orbiting the earth, moon or another planet, transmitting back to earth scientific information. It is launched at a velocity of at least 28,960 km per hour (escape velocity) to enable it overcome gravitational pull of the earth and thus remain in space.In 1680, a British Scientist, Isaac Newton, introduced the idea of artificial satellites.The first message to be transmitted by satellite was the Christmas greeting by President Dwight D Eisenhower of the USA in 1958.In 1969, the first television pictures were relayed around the earth by satellites from Apollo II astronauts. In October 1957, USSR sent sputnik I, the first satellite into the orbit. In the same year, the first living passenger, a little dog called Laika, was carried into space by a satellite.In 1961, a Russian Yuri Gagarin went into space on board of a satellite.In 1969, an American, Neil Armstrong, in his spacecraft Apollo I, landed on the moon.In 1981, the US released the first space shuttle which is manned, airplane like craft which orbits the earth.In 1983, Challenger, the space shuttle, released a satellite into space.
In 1986, an accident occurred on the space shuttle, Challenger, killing seven Astronauts
Pagers/beepers
These are portable communication message devices. In using it, the person sending the message uses a phone and calls a pager number.
The impact of telecommunications today.
Negative attributes to telecommunication.
Print media
This refers to all that is printed or written down and published. For example, journals, books, newspapers, magazines etc.
Newspapers
It is an unbound publication produced at regular intervals and devoted primarily to current events and advertisements. Before printing was invented, the oldest newspaper, The Siloam Inscription,(a stone on which news were recorded) was in circulation among the people of Mesopotamia at around 700 BC.The Chinese court journal, Tsing Pao, published in Peking in AD 500 was another early form of newspaper.The Roman Bulletin, Acta Diurna, used by Emperor Julius Ceaser from 60BC to post government daily announcements was also an early form of newspaper.Printing was invented by a german, Johannes Gutenberg, in the 15th century. The first publication, Strasbourg Relations, was published in 1609The London Daily Post also known as the Public Advertiser was published by Henry Woodfall and his son Sampson Woodfall in 18th c.
The London Times was first published as the Daily Universal Register by John Walter in 1785. It changed its name to Times in 1788.In 1900, C Arthur founded the Daily Express.
The first newspaper in Kenya was the African Standard founded by Alibhai Mullas Jeevanjee, in Mombasa in 1902. It later changed its name to the east African standard in 1905. And moved its operations from Mombasa to Nairobi in 1910.in 1928, Jomo Kenyatta published a local newspaper in Kikuyu, Muigwithania aimed at spreading the views of the Kikuyu central Association and promote kikuyu culture.The Daily Nation was established by the Aga Khan in 1960In 1983, the Kenya Times was founded by Hilary Ngweno and later bought by KANU and owned jointly with a Briton Robert Maxwel
Types of Newspapers.
Daily Newspapers
These print atleast one edition every weekday. Some print morning and evening edition when necessary. Examples of daily newspapers include the Daily Nation, The standard, the Toronto Star and The Los Angeles Times.
Weekly Newspapers
These are published once a week. They contain news of interest to people in a smaller area, maybe a city or a neighborhood. For example the east African in Kenya and the weekly Telegraph in Britain.
Special interest Newspapers
They concentrate on news of special interest to a particular group for example an ethnic community, a corporation or a trade organization. They can be daily, weekly or monthly.
Periodicals
These are publications released at regular intervals and containing news, feature articles, poems, fictional stories etc. they also contain photographs and drawings. Periodicals aimed at general audience are called magazines.Periodicals differ from newspapers in that whereas newspapers deal with sometimes daily news and are unbound, periodicals like magazines and journals focus on more specialized material and deal with news in form of summaries or commentaries. They are printer on finer paper with smaller bound pages and issued at a longer interval than a day when compared to newspapers.
Magazines
These are periodical publications with specialized information on particular issues. They are published fortnightly, weekly or monthly.The oldest magazine is Eileen’s Oxford Gazette published in 1665, later became the London Gazette.The first periodical to use the word magazine in its Title was the Gentleman Magazine published in 1731 in Britain.
The oldest magazine in Kenya is the Kenya Official Gazette (1900-1963), renamed the Kenya Gazette after independence. Other were the Leader of the British East African Company, Wathiomo Mukinyu by Consolata Catholic Missionaries in Nyeri, Tangaza by Harry Thuku, the East African Chronicles and the Colonial times by the Asian Journals
These are periodicals with a narrower target audience such as scholarly publication. They specialize in particular themes or professions. For example the Review of Political Economy, Canadian Journal of African Affairs, the East African Journal of Social Sciences and the East African Medical Journal.
DEVELOPMENT OF INDUSTRIES
Industry is defined as the skill of making other products from raw materials. It involves extraction and processing into finished products of raw materials
Early Sources of Energy.
Energy is the ability to do work. The following are the early sources of energy that can be identified.
Wood.
Wood developed as a source of energy after the discovery of fire. It was used as follows;
This is a form of energy still in use today since it is cheaper and easily available.
Wind.
Wind was used to drive sailing ships during the trade between East African Coast and the Far East.Windmills were used in China to grind grain and process foods
They were also used to pump water from polders in Netherlands.Windmills are also used to generate electricity. Windmills are mainly used in areas with fewer trees like in Isiolo, Garissa, Wajir and Mandera.However the use of wind as a source of energy is disadvantaged by its being irregular and inconsistent in direction and strength.
Water.
Water has been harnessed to produce HEP. Water was used to turn wooden propellers (water wheels) which in turn turned grindstones to grind grains into flour.In England, it was used in the Textile and paper industry to turn spinning machines.In Italy water-powered machines were used to make copper pots, weapons of war, to spin silk and to sharpen various tools. Water also is not reliable as a source of energy since the levels may be too low during dry weather for HEP production.
Uses of metals in Africa
The age of metals in Africa is divided into the Bronze and Iron Age.
Man moved from the Stone Age to the age of metals because metals had the following advantages;
The following are examples of metals that were used in Africa.
Gold
This was the first metal to be used by humankind. It was used in Meroe, Egypt, Wangara in Ghana and in Central Africa.
Gold is malleable and therefore it could be easily moulded into the desired shape without smelting it. Its softness however implied that tools made from gold could bend easily. It was also heavy and could not be found everywhere.
Uses of Gold
Copper
Though quite soft, copper as harder than Gold and could make better tools. The Egyptians were the earliest people to use copper by 3000 BC.The metal could further be hardened by mixing it with other metals to form alloys during smelting.
Uses of copper
they did not have.
Bronze.
Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin which makes it harder than copper. It was used during the Bronze Age.
In Africa Bronze was used among the Yoruba, Dahomey and Asante in Nigeria and in Benin. And also in Egypt. Benin was the centre of Bronze.
Uses of Bronze.
Disadvantages of Bronze.
They required constant sharpening.
Iron.
Two theories that explain the origin and spread of iron working in Africa are;
1) It was first introduced in North Africa from the Middle East by the Phoenicians and the Assyrians, and then spread to west, East Central and South Africa.
2) The art of iron working probably developed independently in Africa as evidenced by the Archaeological evidence in Buhaya (the oldest Iron Age site that existed between 5th and 6th C AD ) , North –West of Tanzania. The Buhaya iron is associated with the pottery style known as Urewe-ware. The Hittites were the first people to smelt and use iron in around 1500BC. The skill then spread to the Assyrians. The idea then spread to Africa between 400 and 500 BC and became widespread in the Nile Valley.By 5th c it had spread upto Meroe (the Birmingham of Africa) then to Ethiopia. From Carthage and Tunisia, it spread to West Africa, at Taruga in Nigeria’s Jos plateau at around 580BC, then to Lake Chad by 500 AD
Ways in which the iron culture spread in Africa.
1) Through wars of conquest e.g. Egypt versus Assyrians where the Assyrians forced the Egyptians to learn to use iron from Meroe to make strong weapons.
2) Trade e.g. the Mesopotamians traded with Africans. The North African then traded with the West Africans, thus spreading the iron smelting technology across the Sahara.
3) Intermarriages e.g. Arabs and Africans intermarried and hence a new iron culture and technology developed.
4) Through learning and acquiring the technology from neighbors.
5) Increased demand for iron tools for agriculture, weapons and iron products increased trade in iron.
6) Migrations. E.g in east Africa where the Bantus and nilotes arrived from West African region with the iron culture which they introduced to east Africa.
7) Travelers and messengers who gave out and received the gifts of iron
Uses of Iron
Effects of iron working
Meroe Axum, in Ghana, in Zimbabwe and in Benin.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN EUROPE.
The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, and then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, Northern America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.The industrial revolution in Europe occurred in two phases;The old phase was from 175-1850 and began in Britain and spread to other European countries like France (1825), Germany (1840), Belgium (1870) and Russia (1890). In USA, it began after the American civil war of 1861 to 1865. In Japan it began in 1900. In Kenya, it is hoped to be done by 2030.
Characteristics of industrial revolution in Europe
Uses of Various Sources of Energy
Coal
This is a compact black or dark brown, carbonaceous rock which is a fuel and source of coke, coal gas and coal tar.Abraham Darby invented the process by which coal was turned into coke in 1709 thus discovered that coal produced immense heat. Coke was used to smelt iron.
Uses of coal
Disadvantages of Coal
Petroleum.(often referred to as oil)
Before 1850, oil was known to American farmers as a substance that affected food production in farms. It was an American Don, Bissel who carried out an analysis of oil samples at a university lab and established that oil was both a fuel and lubricant.
The use of oil became widespread with the invention of the internal combustion engine by Gotlieb Daimler.
Uses of oil.
Disadvantages of oil
Steam.
Steam is boiling water turned into gas. It was used for first time around 100 AD in a steampowered engine developed by a Greek scientist called Hero.In the 16th century, Thomas Savery, a Briton, built a steam engine which could pump water out of a coal mine.In 1712, Thomas Newcomen improved Savery’s design, though he design was still ineffective.In 1764, James Watt improved on Newcomen’s engine to make it more effective and by 1800, 320 of Watt’s engines were in use in Britain.In 1801, Richard Trevithick installed one of Watt’s engines in a road vehicle. Three years later, he produced a steam-driven locomotive that ran on rails.In 1830, George Stephenson improved on Trevithick’s work and invented the first steam locomotive, the rocket.
In all these engines, coal was used to produce steam.
Uses of steam
Electricity
Electricity was discovered by an English Scientist called Michael Faraday (1791-1861) in 1831 when he invented the electric Dynamo.His principal of electromagnetic induction was the beginning of both the dynamo and the electric Motor. The energy used energy from coal, oil, steam or water to produce electricity. The use of electricity became widespread from 1900.
Uses of electricity
Disadvantages of electricity
Other sources of energy
Atomic energy
In 1896, A French physicist, Antoine Henri Beckquerel (1852 -1903), discovered that uranium produces radiation or energy in waves. (Radioactivity). This was the birth of the development of Atomic energy.In 1938, Hahn and Stressman discovered the process of Atomic fusion which leads to production of Atomic energy.In 1942, a group of scientists led by Enrico-Fermi at the university of Chicago, USA, built the first Nuclear research Station which resulted in the invention of the nuclear reactor and later the discovery of an Atomic Bomb like one which was used Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.In Belgium and France, 60% of the electricity is produced from atomic power. However, atomic energy when used in war can be very fatal.Radioactivity also endangers both animal and plant life.Polluted air, where radioactivity has taken place causes fever, diarrhea and death. For example the radioaction accident in 1985 at Three Mile Island in the USA and at Chernobyl near Kiev in Ukraine in 1986 had fatal consequences.
Solar Energy.
It is obtained directly from the sun and is used to dry firewood, clothes and to cook food.
In 1714, Antoine Lavoisier made a solar furnace which could melt metals.An engine using solar power was used to run a printing press in Paris in 1880.The use of solar water heaters was widespread in USA by 1900.In 1954, the first solar cell which turned sunlight into electricity was made. The energy was then used to heat water and generate electricity.
Uses of Solar energy.
Advantages of solar energy
Iron and steel
Iron was not really a source of energy but the industrial revolution was dependant on the availability of iron
Uses of iron
Uses of steel
INDUSTRIALIZATION IN BRITAIN
This change, which occurred between 1750 and 1830, happened because conditions were perfect in Britain for the Industrial Revolution. The transformation was facilitated by the following factors;
environment for investments when compared to other European countries.
INDUSTRIALIZATION IN CONTINENTAL EUROPE.
The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain.
Reasons why other European countries delayed in the industrialization process.
Factors that led to industrial development in continental Europe
Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe
The scientific Revolution
Science is the systematic study of the nature and behaviour of the material and physical universe based on observation. The scientific revolution refers to the history of science in the early modern period, where sudden development in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, medicine and chemistry transformed views of society and nature.
Causes of scientific revolution
supernatural power thus emphasizing research.
Scientific inventions.
Scientific inventions have roots in the ancient civilization in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, China and India. Early inventions were witnessed in the field of medicine, astronomy, agriculture, medicine and mathematics as follows;
Period Inventor and invention
1473-1543 Nicolas Copernicus a polish astronomer. He discovered that Celestial bodies possess uniform, circular motion around a central point.
1564 – 1642 Galileo Galilei. In 1609 the Italian mathematician invented the telescope and observed the universe. He accepted Copernican astronomy and the implicit necessity of a ‘new’ physics to replace Aristotelian mechanics.
1571 – 1630 Johannes Kepler. Used Brahe’s data to confirm that the sun was the center of the universe and the earth and other planets revolved around it.1642 – 1727 Sir Isaac Newton). He explained theories of motion and inertia with the force of gravity. Newton also described the composition of light.
1743-1794 Antoine Lavoisier, a Frenchman. He showed that air was made of hydrogen and oxygen elements.
He stated that chemical substances comprised different elements.
1766-1844 John Dalton, an English Teacher was the founder of modern chemistry and is famous for the atomic theory “all matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.”
1706-1790 Benjamin Franklin (USA) he stated that lightning was a form of electricity. He came up with the theory of electricity and invented the lightning rod.
1791 – 1867 Michael Faraday creates the electric motor, and develops an understanding of electromagnetic induction, which provides evidence that electricity and magnetism are related. In 1831, he invented the electric dynamo, a machine which produced electricity from a magnet.
1799 – 1878 Joseph Henry’s research on electromagnetic induction is performed at the same time as Faraday’s. He constructs the first motor; his work with electromagnets leads directly to the development of the telegraph.
Impact of scientific inventions
Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture
1831-1979 James Clerk Maxwell pointed out that acceleration of electric charges emitted electromagnetic radiation. The ideas underlying Maxwell’s theories of electromagnetism describe the propagation of light waves in a vacuum.
1787-1854 . In 1827, George Simon Ohm determined that the current that flows through a wire is proportional to its cross sectional area and inversely proportional to its length or Ohm’s law.
1876 Nicolaus Otto, A German traveling salesman named constructed the first practical internal combustion engine; it used a four stroke cycle of a piston to draw a fuel-air mixture into a cylinder, compress it, mechanically capture energy after ignition, and expel the exhaust before
beginning the cycle anew.
1847-1869 Alexander Graham Bell, In 1876, at the age of 29, invented his telephone.
1701 Tull, Jethro invented a horse-drawn seed drill.
1764 Water frame invented by Richard Arkwright – the first powered textile machine.
1888-1946 John Logie Baird is remembered as the inventor of mechanical television (an earlier version of television). Baird also patented inventions related to radar and fiber optics.
1755
Robert Bakewell produces Leicester sheep through selective breeding methods. In 1769, Bakewell breeds Longhorn cattle through selective breeding
1786 Andrew Meikle, a Scottish engineer, develops threshing machine
1831 Cyrus McCormick invents the first commercially successful horse-drawn reaper for harvesting wheat
1837 John Deere develops and manufactures the first commercially successful cast -steel plough
1831 – 1860s John Fowler pioneers the use of engines for ploughing and drainage channels
1879 Anna Baldwin patents a milking machine—a vacuum device connected to a hand pump—to replace hand milking. Invention receives a patent but not commercially successful.
1842 The first grain elevator is built by Joseph Dart in the U.S.
1850 Edward Quincy invents the corn picker
1764 Spinning jenny invented by James Hargreaves – the first machine to improve upon the spinning wheel.
1733 Flying shuttle invented by John Kay – an improvement to looms that enabled weavers to weave faster.
1779 Crompton invented the spinning mule that allowed for greater control over the weaving process.
1785 Cartwright patented the power loom. It was improved upon by William Horrocks, known for his invention of the variable speed batton in 1813.
1847 -1931 Thomas Alva Edison is Most famous for his invention of the electric incandescent light bulb.
1853 – 1937 Elihu Thomson. His experiments eventually led to the adoption of alternating current technology.
1913 Robert Adler. He is Most famous for his invention of the wireless TV remote control.
1856 -1943 Nikola Tesla is Recognized as one of the outstanding pioneers in the electric power field
1765-1825 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1794. The cotton gin is a machine that separates seeds, hulls and other unwanted materials from cotton after it has been picked.
1895 Wilhelm Röntgen discovers x rays.
1898 Marie and Pierre Curie separate radioactive elements.
1898 Joseph Thompson measures the electron, and puts forth his “plum-pudding” model of the atom — that the atom is a slightly positive sphere with small, raisin -like negative electrons inside.
and control methods and scientific breeding. Hybrid seeds have been developed together with new animal breeds.
Negative impacts of scientific inventions on agriculture.
Impact of scientific inventions on industry.
Movement of labour, raw materials and manufactured goods is efficient.
manufactured.
development of printing press, and internet development.
Negative impact of scientific inventions on industry
Impact of scientific inventions on medicine
Factors undermining scientific revolution in third world countries
Measures that can be undertaken to promote scientific research in third world countries.
Emergence of selected world industrial powers
United States of America.
This is the third largest nation in the world after Canada and China
Industrialization of the USA began in the mid 19th c and she had emerged as a major industrial power by mid 20th c. USA remains the only superpower in the world after collapse of USSR in 1990.
Factors influencing the industrialization of USA.
Her high quality products were also on high demand outside America.
Germany
The unification of Germany took place in 1871 after which she began to emerge as an industrial power.
Emergence of Germany as an industrial power was aided as by the following factors.
German’s industrialization was however interrupted during the two world war periods. At the end of world war Germany was able to recover and progress in industrial development.
Factors which enabled Germany to recover after world war two.
Japan.
Japan is a nation that has achieved a great deal in industrialization. In the 18c, Japan was faced with civil wars. Later she made contacts with the west, through which her leaders realized that industrialization could strengthen Japan as a nation. Great strides towards industrialization were made during the reign of Emperor Meiji from 1896.
Factors that enabled Japan to emerge as an industrial power
Unskilled manpower has been made availability thanks to the abolition of the policy of feudalism that enabled labourers to move from the farms to the industries.
Industrialization in the third world countries.
The term ‘Third world’ refers to developing nations of Africa, Asia and South America.
Most of them are former colonies of European powers and there resources were used to develop the mother countries during the colonial period.
Reasons why many developing countries have lagged behind in industrialization.
Brazil
The fourth largest nation in the world after Canada, China and USA, she was colonized by Portugal and attained her independence in 1882. In the last 25 years, she has been able to expand and diversify production of manufactured goods.
Her industrialization has been in four main sectors namely;
Factors that have facilitated industrialization in Brazil
transportation of manufactured goods.
Obstacles to industrialization in Brazil.
zones like the south where labour for exploitation is lacking.
SOUTH AFRICA
She attained majority rule in 1994 after a long struggle against the apartheid regime. The country has achieved great strides in industrialization with many industries including iron and steel industries, engineering, locomotive, chemical, textile, cement, light industries and tourism
Factors influencing industrialization in South Africa
countries especially after end of the apartheid rule has led to growth of external market to supplement the available market locally.
Challenges facing industrialization in South Africa.
India.
Since India’s independence from Britain in 1947, the country has continued to experience extensive industrialization
Factors that facilitated India’s industrialization.
Challenges facing industrialization in India
URBANIZATION
This is the process by which people are attracted to live in towns or large settlements.
An urban centre is any area with a human population of 20,000 people or more.
Early Urbanization.
Some of the early urban centres in Africa included Cairo, Meroe/Merowe and Kilwa.
Factors that influenced development of urban centres in Africa.
Cairo.
This is the capital city of Egypt. The city was founded in 969 AD when the conquerors from Tunisia, ‘The Fatimid Dynasty’ invaded and conquered Egypt
Factors for the growth of Cairo
Functions of Cairo
Cairo faces the following problems today;
Solutions to the problems facing Cairo.
Meroe/Merowe.
This was the second capital of the kingdom of Kush and emerged as a city in 650 BC. It rose to become an important industrial centre and specifically iron working producing weapons, hunting and farming tools.
Factors for growth of Meroe.
Social effects of the growth of Merowe
Functions of Meroe during the colonial period
Factors that led to decline of Merowe
The city began declining in 350 BC.
Kilwa
The town is among the city states that developed along the east African coast. Her greatness was due to the Persian influence. One of its Shirazi rulers from Banadir Coast in Persia, Ali Ibn Hassan, transformed the town into a large city.The sultan erected a stone citadel to protect the island from external enemies. He also forced other conquered city-states to pay tribute to Kilwa.Later on Sultan al-Hassan Ibn Sulaiman I built the Great mosque of Kilwa in 1270 AD and a luxurious palace referred to by historians as Husuni Kubwa.
Factors influencing the growth of Kilwa
Functions of Kilwa.
Factors that led to the decline of Kilwa.
Factors that led to the collapse of early urban centres in pre-colonial Africa
Early urban centres in Europe
Athens
This is one of the early states in ancient Greece that flourished after the Persian wars of between 490-480 BC.Athens developed from a farming settlement situated in a defensive site. It had many beautiful buildings such as the Parthenon (a large temple built between 460 and 430 BC in honour of Athena, the goddess of Athens). The acropolis was the highest part of the town.Athens had narrow streets and some of its houses were made of unbaked bricks or mud and thatched roofs.There were frequent outbreaks of diseases due to poor sanitation.The concept of democracy first developed in Athens. At the centre of the city was a market, Agora, which was used as an assembly hall for debates.Athenians were divided into four classes.
Athens began to decline due to the Peloponnesian wars (431-404 BC). It was finally crushed in 338 BC by Phillip of Macedonia.Currently Athens is the capital of Greece with a population of 4 million.
Factors that led to growth of Athens.
Functions of Athens.
London.
The capital city of England, it is situated on the estuary of the river Thames. Its name is derived from the name Llyn Dun which means ‘Celtic Lake Fort’. The town developed during the Roman rule in Britain in A.D 43.By 314 AD London had become an early centre of Christianity.In 1381, the city was adversely affected by a serious peasant, revolt that led to massive destruction of property.By 18th c, London had emerged as an elegant city though however also with numerous urban related problems. In 1890, it hosted the world’s first electric train.
Factors influencing growth of London
Functions of London
Problems of London
Like many large cities worldwide, London has its share of problems:
Modern cities in Africa.
Nairobi.
Nairobi developed as a depot and camp for the railway workers during the construction of the kenya-Uganda railway
Factors influencing the growth of Nairobi
Functions of Nairobi.
Problems facing Nairobi
Solutions to these problems
Johannesburg.
The city started as a mining camp in 1886 after the discovery of gold in the Witwate-rsrand. This attracted thousands of people coming to prospect for minerals and seek for employment. By the end of 19thc, the population of Johannesburg had risen to 166,000 people.
Factors which contributed to the growth of Johannesburg
Functions of Johannesburg.
Problems facing Johannesburg
Solutions to the problems
Impact of agrarian development on urbanization in Africa
On urbanization in Europe
Impacts of industrial revolution on urbanization in the world.
manufactured goods for export and raw material for factories e.g. growth of London, Budapest, Marseilles, Lagos and Cairo.
Consequences of urbanization on European communities during the 19th c.
ORGANIZATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES
Despite the high amount of decentralization of African communities in the 19th c , there existed a few who were centralized. For example, Buganda, Ethiopia, Buganda, Asante, Mandinka, Ndebele and shona among others.
The Baganda
These were a Bantu speaking people of the Buganda kingdom in Uganda. The Buganda Chiefdom had emerged as early as 140 AD as a subject state of Bunyoro- Kitara Kingdom
Origin of Buganda kingdom
The kingdom was crystallized around the counties of busiro, kyadondo and mawakota.
Traditions also state that the first king and creator of Buganda kingdom was Kintu who came from the east around Mount Elgon region. It is believed he entered Buganda with 13 clans. Other theories attribute Buganda’s origin to the Luo. That Kimera Kato, a brother of Isingoma Rukidi Mpunga the founder of the luo-babito dynasty in Bunyoro was the founder of Buganda.It is also probable that Buganda might have been one of the many kingdoms founded by the bachwezi- the demi-gods.Other clans of Buganda are believed to have come from the ssese islands.
Factors that led to the growth of a strong Buganda Kingdom
How Buganda kingdom was governed.
Buganda kingdom had a highly centralized monarchy under the kabaka who enjoyed absolute powers. His position was hereditary. The Kabaka’s Court was the nerve centre of the Baganda community. All symbols of Royal authority were kept in the court. E.g. the throne (Namulondo), royal Drums, spears and stools. The kabaka was the political leader of the Baganda kingdom. He was the Head of the traditional religion –lubale/ he was the chief priest. He was the judicial head and the final court of appeal/he was the supreme judge. The was the commander-in- -chief of the armed forces.He appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. He controlled trade.
The capital of the kingdom was at Mengo, where the palace, Lubiri, was situated.
The kabaka appointed senior government officials and dismissed them when need arose. Forexample, he appointed the katikiro, omulamuzi and omuwanika i.e. prime minister, chief justice and treasurer respectively who assisted him in administration. He also appointed mugema (the senior most chief among the Bataka), Musenero (the chief Butler) and Mfumbiro (the chief baker).The katikiro was in charge of organizing tax collecting and public works. He planned wars in the Kabaka’s name. He had to protect the kabaka during war. He was responsible of informing the kabaka of the decisions he made on court issues. Below him were omulamuzi (chief justice) and omuwanika (treasurer) who were directly responsible to the kabaka.The Bataka were minor chiefs in charge of clans, guarded land, collected taxes, carried out conscription to the army and presented the page boys to the kabaka.Peasants served under chief and were to fight in wars. Slaves (badus) served the king chiefs in their homesteads. Pages and bagalagala (sons of chiefs and other nobles) served the kabaka too.To ensure unity the kabaka married from principal clans.There was a Lukiko which advised the kabaka and was the final court. It comprised 69 members who were nominated by the kabaka (positions were not hereditary). It made laws and debated issues concerning the kingdom. It also directed tax collection and planned expenditure, it acted as the final court of appeal, and it represented the needs of the people to the kabaka. It helped the kabaka in general administration. It checked the activities of government.
Political organization
The kingdom was divided into counties (Ssaza) and sub-counties. Each county was under Ssaza chiefs whose position was hereditary initially before the kabaka began to appoint them as a means of making them accountable. Each Ssaza was divided into a gombolola headed by a gombolola chief, who maintained law and order and collected taxes. The gombololas were further divided into smaller sub-divisions called miluka each under a miluka chief. The miluka was divided into kisoko. The smallest administrative unit among the Baganda was the village council. The Abatongole appointed by the kabaka, governed the vassal states
Social organization of the Baganda
The kingdom was divided in social classes with the royal family occupying the top of the hierarchy, then ruling class, the chiefs who ruled over the peasants or commoners known as bakopi.At the bottom of the social class were the slaves (Badu) who were acquired mainly through raids on neighbouring communities such as Busoga, Toro and Bunyoro.
The Baganda believed in the existence of many gods some of whom included;
The community also believed in the existence of ancestral spirits whose main responsibilitywas to maintain discipline in the clans since the spirits were believed to restrict their influence to close relatives. Balubaale were the spirits of people who had supernatural powers and were consulted through prophets or mediums.
The Baganda had religious leaders, led by the kabaka, then the mediums, prophets, and medicine people.There also existed sorcerers called Balopo who were feared since they could cause harm to people.The Baganda religion however was greatly undermined by the influx of the Waswahili and ArabMuslims into the community in the 19th c.
The Baganda society was polygamous. For example, the kabaka was required to marry from all clans to maintain links in the society.There was division of labour according to sex. Women tilled the land while men engaged in warfare, built houses, and made clothes from bark-cloth.As a form of rite of passage, the Baganda went through formal education that trained them in their rites.
Economic organization.
SHONA
The Shona were a Bantu-speaking people who comprised the Rozwi, Kore kore, Zezuru and Manyika sub-groups. The first stone buildings in Zimbabwe are believed to have been the work of the Shona. Their capital was at Mapungubwe, south of the confluence of the Limpopo and Shashi rivers.About 1450 AD, the Rozwi Groups gained dominance and established a centralized political system. They established the Mwene Mutapa Empire which ruled until the time of the Ngoni invasion in the 1830s.
Political organization of the Mwene Mutapa Empire
The emperor was the head of the state and government. Succession of authority was hereditary. Important emperors included Chikura, Nyatsimba, Mutota and Matope.
Religion played a role in government and united people. The emperor was a semi-divinereligious leader, a military leader and the chief priest. He was the only one who could communicate with the spirits of the ancestors. It was believed that when Mwene Mutapa died, he became a Mudzimu and automatically qualified to be worshipped as a national ancestral spirit.The ancestral spirits (Vadzimu) communicated people’s problems to god.Religion also influenced laws.The priests were used as spies and link between the emperor and the people.
Another unifying factor in the kingdom was the royal fire. It was from the continuous fire that each vassal chief carried a flame to his chiefdom that he kept burning as a symbol of national unity.The empire was divided into provinces namely Guruhaswa, Mbire, Utere, Banua, and Manyika each headed by a lesser chief. The most important chiefs in the empire sent their sons, with tribute in form of cattle, gold, slaves and ivory, each year to pay homage to the Mwene Mutapa as goodwill ambassadors.There was a standing army of warriors which was used for defence and expansion of the kingdom. Revenue from trade was used to run the army and sustain the empire.The position of importance held by Mwene Mutapa led to the creation of a complex Style of administration around him.
The government officials included the court steward, treasurer, commander-in-chief of the army and Mbokurumme (king’s sister-in-law). Others were the queen mother, the emperor’s sister and nine principal wives, the doorkeeper and the chief cook and head drummer. At the lower level were the lesser chiefs who paid tribute to the king by providing cattle, labour and agricultural produce.
Economic organization of the Shona.
The Shona country enjoyed ample rainfall with fertile soils thus enabling them to engage in the following economic activities;
Social organization of the Shona
Among the shona, Mwene Mutapa was regarded as a divine king and was therefore venerated. When he was well, the nation was also well.The shona religion was based on the Mwari cult. They believed in the all powerful God, Mwari/Murungu. His worship was done through several priests who were mainly produced by the Rozwi clan. The priests presided over religious functions in sacred places of worship, shrines where sacrifices were offered.The shona believed in ancestral spirits. They had two kinds of spirits, Vadzimu or family spirits and Mhondoro or clan spirits. The spirits communicated though an intermediary, Svikiro, a departed family or clan spirit.The shona had a national spirit Chamiruka who settled clan disputes and also protected the people against injustice in the government.The shona had a kinship system which was patrilineal (inheritance through the father). The shona were divided into clans whose names were coined from animals like leopard, monkey, elephant etc. it was a taboo to consume meat from such animals.They were a polygamous community which was viewed as a means to enable the family to have enough members to provide labour.The shona lived in stone buildings. Their skill in masonry is associated with the ruins of Mapungubwe found in Zimbabwe.
The Asante
The Asante are one of the Akan-speaking peoples who occupy the southern part of Ghana, west Africa. By the middle 18th c, the Asante/Ashanti had established the most dominant state in modern Ghana.
Origin of the Asante Kingdom
The empire Developed in the 1670’s. It was formed as a result of competition for gold fields in the Akan forestland. In the 1500’s: Akan peoples came into contact with Portuguese traders. Wealthy owners of the Akan gold mines begin to trade gold for Benin slaves with the Portuguese. In the 1670’s, Osei Tutu was a military leader and head of the Oyoko clan of the Akan peoplesTook control over a trade center near Kumasi and established this as his capital city. This happened after his maternal uncle Obiri Yeboa, the leader of the Oyoko clan was killed during war.A company of Akwamu troops are believed to have been instrumental in facilitating Osei Tutu’s rise to power. He conquered the neighboring chiefdoms and took control of their trade. He took the title of ASANTEHENE. He Collected taxes from the chiefdoms on profits from the gold mines. He built a standing army by demanding that chiefdoms provide soldiers. He sought the support of religious leaders throughout the region. For example, a priest of the shrine of the war god (Otutu0 called Anokye in Akwapim played a role in ensuring that Osei Tutu became the Asantehene.). He established the “GOLDEN STOOL” as a symbol of his rightful rule.
The Golden Stool
Akan peoples become Asante (Ashanti)
By 1700, Osei Tutu controlled most of the gold fields of the Akan forestland.Osei Tutu was succeeded by Opoku Ware (1717-1750). During his rule, he will extend the Asante kingdom to include most of what is today present-day Ghana. The new city-states now included Kumasi, Juaben, Bekmai, Mampon, Kokofu and Nsula.Opuku Ware will participate in the slave trade with the Europeans, selling war captives and growing very wealthy. Asante were one of the last great kingdoms to fall to the Europeans in the late 19th century.
Factors that led to the rise and growth of the Asante Empire
The wealth was instrumental in the prosperity of the Kingdom.
Political organization
The Asante had a centralized political system. The Nucleus of the Asante Empire was five citystates of Kumasi, Dwaben, Bekwai, Kokofu and Nsula.The empire comprised of three parts, namely Kumasi (Metropolitan Asante), Amatoo states and Provincial Asante. Each part had its own system of administration though the three cooperated in some areas. Kumasi was directly ruled by the Asantehene and was recognized as Kumasihene.
Metropolitan Asante
These were the five states that lay 35 miles around Kumasi and which recognized the Asantehene as the supreme authority. The government of the metropolitan Asante consisted the confederacy council made of the Kings (Omanhene) of the various states and presided over by the Asantehene. The Asante Union provides a good example of a federal system of government. All the states within the metropolitan Asante paid tax to the Asantehene which was used to pay for the administration and form an army.Each of the five states had its own state council that made important decisions. Each also had its own Black stool that symbolized their power over the state .The omanhenes were expected to give the right of declaring war on another Omanhene, attended the annual Odwira festival (to pay allegiance to Asantehene, settle disputes and honor the dead), grant own subjects the right to appeal to the high court set up for the union of the capital and recognize the right of Asantehene to impose national levies.Neither the Asantehene nor the Omanhene enjoyed dictatorial powers.The kingdom had an army that was divided into several wings. Though overall leadership of the army was provided by the Asantehene, each Omanhene command his own forces. The Asantehene was deputized by Mamphohene who automatically take over army leadership whenever the Asantehene was unavailable.Among the Asante, there was compulsory military service for all able-bodied men in the empire (a system borrowed from the Akwamu).The Asantehene established a national festival called the Odwira festival during which all The Omanhene assembled in Kumasi to show their loyalty to the Asantehene, to honor the deadand to solve disputes amongst themselves. It also enhanced unity amongst the Asante states.
The golden stool, an idea invented by a priest called Okomfo Anokye (he claimed it came from the sky in 1695) during the reign of Osei Tutu, made the office of the Asantehene acceptable. It was a source of unity as it bound together the Asante states since they all recognized its sacredness.
Provincial Asante
It comprised all the states conquered by the Asante in the 18th century (subject states). Such people were represented in the army and paid taxes to the Asantehene. Osei Tutu appointed two consuls who resided in each subject state to supervise their affairs. An efficient bureaucracy was established in each o the provincial Asante states with the Asantehene appointing senior officials directly himself
Social organization
The Kingdom was composed of many communities who spoke the Akan language. The clans that made up the Akan speakers included the Akyem, Kwahu, the Fante, the Wassa, the Assin and the Akwapem. All these communities shared the same social institutions like the forty-day calendar, same marriage and naming rites. The basic social unit was the clan.They had a matrilineal system of inheritance. The birthright of each family passed through the mother from one generation to the other. The practiced polygamy marriage due to wealth and comfort in society and prohibited inter clan (paternal and maternal clans) marriages. The Odwira festival helped unite the society besides the golden stool.
The Asante was socially stratified into social classes e.g. the rulers, rich, peasant farmers and slaves. The Asantehene and his family comprised the royal family together with the Omanhene. The saves among the Asante were majorly war captives. Some of the female slaves could be elevated to concubines and later become entitled to some rights.They believed in magic and superstition and also worshipped gods and goddesses i.e. they were polytheists. Their supreme creator was Nyame (Nyambe).They believed in their ancestors as mediators between the people and God (gods). The Odwira festival was held annually to honour ancestors and solves my disputes. They offered sacrifices to their gods/ancestors including human sacrifices.The Asante hence was considered semi-divine being and highly regarded. Creative arts like dancing music, sculpture were highly respected in society.
Economic organization of the Asante
Being located in an area rich in terms of land fertility forest resources, mineral resources and rainfall, the Asante Empire thrived economically in the following ways.
The Asante community however became a victim of the same economic wars it waged against her neighbours especially the Fante and Denkyira. In 1873, the British came to the aid of the Fante thus greatly weakening the Asante power.
Reasons for the collapse of the Asante Empire.
CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTION MAKING
The term ‘constitution’ refers to a set of agreed principles and rules which state the structure and powers of a government.The constitution of Kenya is a supreme law that binds all people and all state organs at national and county level. It outlines the structure of government, defines the powers and prerogatives of the head of state, states the compositions, functions and powers of parliament, states the compositions of the executives and outlines the duties and rights of the citizens. Constitutions vary in various countries depending on different experiences and their form is determined by the following.
Functions of a constitution
Types of constitutions
This is a constitution in which the basic principles concerning the organization of government, powers of its various agencies and rights of the subjects are consciously written down in one document.The first country to adopt a written constitution was USA after she attained political independence from Britain on 4th July 1776. France adopted it in 1791following the French revolution of 1789. The primary objective of these adoptions was to include the rights of the citizens to avoid abuse by those in power.
Other countries with written constitutions include many European, African, Latin American and Asian countries. Kenya also has a written constitution.
Characteristics of a written constitution
Advantages of a written constitution
Disadvantages of a written constitution.
This is a constitution where the fundamental principles of the organization and powers of the government are not contained in one document but rather in several scattered documents to add to the customs of a country. For example, the British constitution.
Sources of British constitution
~ Act of Union with Scotland of 1707 that determined the territorial boundaries within which the United Kingdom’s constitution operates.
~ Parliament Act of 1911 that governs the relationship between the House of
Commons and the House of Representatives
~ The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1834 which determine succession to the throne.
Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2012-2013 82
~ The Magna Carta (1215AD) that contained the promises by the England King that he would not levy taxes outside the three legal feudal taxes without the consent of the legal counsel.
~ The Petition of Right (1628) in which King Charles I agreed not to levy taxes unless through the Act of Parliament.
Advantages of unwritten constitution
Disadvantages of an unwritten constitution
Features/qualities of a good constitution.
Pre- colonial era
The rules and regulation that formed the constitutional basis of pre-colonial communities in Kenya were mainly formulated by the councils of elders and then handed down from generation to generation.The constitution was unwritten constitution guiding only the political, economic and socio cultural activities
Colonial Era (1885- 1960)
Kenya was under the British colonial rule after the Berlin Conference upto 1963. The constitutional developments in the country were greatly influenced by the settlement of immigrant communities like the white settlers, the Asians and Christian missionaries. These communities competed with the Africans for control of economic resources and political power.The turning point in Kenya’s pre-colonial constitutional developments was the outbreak of Mau Mau war and subsequent declaration of a State Of Emergency on 20th October 1952 by Sir Evelyn Barring. When the colonial secretary Oliver Lyttelton visited Kenya in 1954, he proposed the following constitutional reforms.
~ Establishment of a multi-racial council of ministers representing the three races setting ground for two Indian and one African minister (B. A Ohanga became the first African Minister)
~ It Proposed direct representation of Africans in the LEGCO
~ Lifting the ban on African political parties/district associations.
In 1958, a new constitution was proposed by Lennox Boyd. The constitution led to increased number of elected Africans in the legislative council (from 8 to 14). It led to introduction of multi-racial representation in the legislative council. It led to the increase of the number of African ministers to two.
The African elected members demanded for a constitutional conference culminating into the independence constitution.
The independence constitution (1960-1962)
The first Lancaster House Conference (1960)
Attended by all members of Legco and two nominated members, the conference received the following demands;
All these proposal were moderated by the British government
The period after the first Lancaster House conference witnessed a lot of differences among Africans and among other races. Among the Africans, the differences culminated into the formation of KANU in March 1960 at Kiambu with James Gichuru as president and KADU in Ngong Town with Ronald Ngala as the president.The main difference between KADU and KANU was that while KANU was advocating gor a unitary government, KADU wanted a federal system.The second Lancaster House conference (1962).When KANU refused to form government despite winning the elections, demanding for the release of Jomo Kenyatta, KADU formed a rather minority government that was heavily dominated by the colonial officials. Such a government was rejected by most people thus creating instability that led to the British Authorities calling for the second Lancaster House Conference.
The following important issues were discussed;
The participants in the formulation of the independence constitution were representatives of various political parties: – Paul Ngei (APP), KADU and KANU. Others were representatives of the Asian and European communities.The 1962 conference settled for a federal structure with a strong central government.A coalition government was formed briefly but when the 1962 constitution was promulgated, it was followed by a general election in May 1963.The third and final conference in 1963 resulted in the drafting and adoption of Kenya’s first independent Constitution by the British Parliament
The 1963 constitution established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, The Queen of England remained Head of State.
Independence (1963)
Kanu won the May elections and Kenya Attained internal self-government with Jomo Kenyatta as the first Prime Minister on 1st June 1963. Kenya attained full independence on 12th December 1963 when the Queen ceased to be the head of state.Kenya has been using the Independence Constitution upto August 2010 though with so many amendments.
Main provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya
The powers of the governor were defence of the country, foreign affairs, internal security and approval of legislation.
Post –colonial Era (1963-2010).
From independence to Mult-party democracy period (1963-1991)
Like many former British colonies, Kenya started off with a west Minister system of government.The first Constitutional amendment in independent Kenya was in 1964. Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The senate and regions were also abolished.A Constitutional review in June 1982 officially transformed Kenya into a one-party state.A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system.
The period after 1992 was influenced by Global issues like the decline of the cold war, collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989 and the intensified struggle for democracy all over the world.In 1997, the Inter Party Parliamentary Group (IPPG) was formed with membership from the Opposition and KANU mps. The aim was to come up with minimal constitutional reforms to level the ground before the 1997 general elections
The following reforms were approved;
In 1997, a constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution. In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the CKRC into the independence constitution. It was now headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai and comprised 15 commissioners. In June 2001, the CKRC was expanded to include other groups like the People’s commission following the amendment of the 1997 Constitution of Kenya Review Act.The CKRC act specified a 2 year time frame for completion of the review process.However, its activities were marred by controversy in 2002 and the ultimate dissolving of parliament in October 2002 by president Moi. He even attempted to dissolve the commission, thanks to its being entrenched in the independence constitution.When the NARC government took over power in 2003, the review exercise was reviewed. The National Constitutional Conference was convened at Bomas of Kenya and came up with what came to known as the Bomas Draft constitution. However the political elite did not support the Bomas Draft.In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft. The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders.In December 2007, Kenyans participated in the general elections that were followed by Post Election Violence caused by the controversy that surrounded the results of the elections.
Steps towards realization of a new constitution in Kenya from 2008 .
The main provisions of the National Accord were:
~ Establishment of a grand coalition government with two parties; PNU and ODM
sharing power.
~ Raila Odinga was to become Kenya’s second Prime minister after the position was created in the accord arrangement
~ Two deputy Prime Minister Positions would be filled by the PNU and ODM parties respectively.
~ Provision for An expanded cabinet with the two parties being accorded slots as
per their proportion in the house.
(CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the
process.
members were Ms Njoki Ndung’u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein, Mr Bobby Mkangi, Professor Christina Murray (South Africa), Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda).
Stages in the constitution making process in Kenya since independence
1) Debate over contentious issues. Issues like the entrenchment of section 2A in the independence constitution in 1981 raised concerns among various stake holders and groups. The issue of whether to include the position of Prime Minister or not has also been debated for many years.
2) Collection of public views. The Saitoti commission (the Constitution review commission established by Moi in 1990) had the objective of collecting views of Kenyans concerning how KANU was to operate in the best way possible. In June 2001, the CKRC, chaired by Yash Pal Ghai was mandated to collect views as part of the constitution review process.
3) Civic education. In 2001, the Ghai Commission was mandated and funded to provide civic education.
4) Convening of constitutional conferences. For example, The 2002 National Constitution Conference at Bomas of Kenya and other similar conferences.
5) Drafting of the constitution. This involved both local and international experts who drafted the constitution between 2000 and 2010. This was mainly the work of the Ghai led CKRC and the Committee of experts led by Nzamba Gitonga.
6) The referendum. During the 2005 referendum, the Wako Draft constitution was rejected. In August 2010, another referendum was held and the 2010 proposed New Constitution was approved.
7) Promulgation of the constitution. On 27th of August 2010, President Mwai Kibaki presided over the promulgation of the new constitution of Kenya.
Constitutional Changes in Kenya since independence upto 2010
1) The 1963 independence constitution marked the end of colonial rule and transformed the colony into a dominion. It established a parliamentary system with executive powers vested in a cabinet headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the Queen of England from the majority party in Parliament. The Queen of England remained Head of State as represented by the Governor General who was also the Commander-in-Chief
2) By the 1stamendment Act 28 of 1964, published in November 1964, Kenya became a republic and the executive became presidential. The amendment outlined the criteria to be met by a presidential candidate. It made provision of a Vice President who would be appointed by the president from among the members of parliament. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga became the first occupant of that office.
3) By The 2nd amendment Act 38 of 1964 published on 17th December 1964, the senate and regions were also abolished.
4) 3rd amendment Act 14 of 1965, published on 8th June 1965, altered parliamentary Majorityrequired for approval of a state of emergency to only a simple majority from the previous
65%. The term ‘region’ was replaced with ‘province.’ The amendment altered the title of Supreme Court.
5) By the 4th amendment Act 16 of 1966, published on 12th April 1966, commonwealth citizens became eligible for Kenyan citizenship. Also any legislator jailed for six months or more or missed to attend eight consecutive parliamentary seatings without the speaker’s permission had to forfeit his/her parliamentary seat.
6) On 28th April 1966, an amendment was passed, published on 30th April, to compel MPs who defected from sponsoring party, to resign from parliament and seek re-election. This amendment targeted Kenya People’s Union (KPU) of Jaramogi Odinga that had been formed that year. The amendment was published, tabled, debated, passed and received presidential assent within 48 hours. (it was nicknamed ‘the KPU amendment’).
7) In May 1966, the Public Security Act was passed, published on 7thJune 1966, empowering the president to detain a citizen without trial on grounds of being a threat to state security.
The president also acquired power to control freedom of the press.
8) In 1966, a constitutional amendment abolished the Bicameral Legislature and replaced it with a Unicameral Legislature, chosen directly by the electorate.
The Act was published on 4th January 1967. The voting majority to change the Constitution was lowered to two-thirds of the MPs.
9) In 1968, by the 9th amendment, published on 12th April 1968, the president was empowered to alter provincial and district boundaries. The act abolished the provincial councils and all representatives to the provincial and district boundaries. This marked the end of regionalism.
10) In 1968, by the 10th amendment, Act 45 published on 12th July 1968, the procedure for presidential elections and succession in the event of his death was laid down. Also, that all candidates for a general election should be nominated by a political party. The act also gave the president power to nominate 13 MPs to replace the 12 specially elected members of the House of Representatives.
11) In 1974, the age qualification for presidential candidates was also lowered to 35 from 40 years. The minimum voting age was altered from 21 to 18 years.
12) In 1975, an amendment of the constitution empowered the president to pardon any election offender at his own discretion. This was done to favour Paul Ngei who been found guilty of an election offence. It was named ‘the Ngei Amendment’. The bill went through all the stages in one afternoon and received presidential assent the following day.
13) In 1975, Kiswahili was declared the national language of the national assembly.
14) In 1977, the Kenya court of appeal was established after the breakup of the East African Community.
15) The 18th amendment Act passed in 1979 was the first one under president Moi. It provided that public officers had to resign six months in advance in order to qualify as candidates for parliamentary elections.
16) In 1979, both Kiswahili and English were declared languages of the national assemb ly.
17) By The 19th amendment Act of 1981 published in 1982, Kenya became a de jure one party
state. KANU became the only lawful party in Kenya. The infamous section 2A was
introduced in the constitution. (Kenya had been a de facto one party state between 1969and 1982). The post of Chief Secretary was created to head the public service. The first occupant being Jeremiah Kiereini.
18) By the 1985 20th amendment Act, the High Court began acting as a Court of Appeal.
19) The 21st amendment Act passed in 1985 repealed Section 89 of the constitution which provided for the acquisition of Citizenship for anyone born in Kenya after December 11th 1963.
20) In 1987, the security of tenure of the Attorney General, Chief Secretary, The Comptroller and Auditor–General was removed. The president could now dismiss them at will. Office of chief secretary was abolished.
21) In 1988, the security of tenure of Puisine Judges and Chairman of Public Service Commission was removed. The removal of security of tenure of the above officers sparked a lot of condemnation from LSK and main stream churches.
22) In 1988, an amendment was passé that provided the police with powers to hold a suspect in custody for upto fourteen days before taking him/ her to court if the crime constituted a capital offence. This is what led to detaining of persons suspected of opposing the government in the dingy basement of Nyayo House where some were tortured to death.
23) 1990- Security of tenure of the offices of AG and Controller and Auditor –General was reinstated.
24) A parliamentary act in December 1991 repealed the one-party system provisions (section
2A) of the constitution and effectively established a multiparty system. Multiparty elections were held the following year in December.
25) In 1991, an amendment that was passed limited the tenure of the president to a maximum of two-five year terms.
26) After 1997 elections, Parliament, on the initiative of the government, passed the Constitution of Kenya Review Act that set the pace for comprehensive constitutional reforms.
27) A constitutional review commission, called the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission (CKRC), was established to provide civic education, seek public input and prepare a draft constitution.
28) In October 2000, parliament passed a Bill entrenching the Constitution of Ken ya Review Commission (CKRC) headed by Professor Yash Pal Ghai into the independence constitution.
29) In 2005, Parliament amended the constitution of Kenya Review Act to allow the Attorney General to come up with the Proposed New Constitution, popularly known as the Wako Draft
30) The draft constitution was ultimately rejected by Kenyans at the constitutional referendum in 2005 because of disagreements amongst various stakeholders .
31) The rejection of the draft constitution by Kenyans in the referendum of 2005 meant that the 1963 constitution (as amended) remained the basic law of Kenya. .
32) 28 February 2008The National Accord and Reconciliation Act (NARA) was signed by President Kibaki and Prime Minister Raila Odinga to end violence that erupted after the December 2007 presidential elections.
Agenda No 4 of this arrangement calls for a new process to finalize the long awaited constitution of Kenya
33) In 2008 the Constitution of Kenya Review Act 2008 was passed and a Committee of Experts (CoE) was established as the main technical constitutional review organ to drive the process. The CoE was chaired by Nzamba Kitonga; the deputy chair was Ms Atsango Chesoni, other members were Ms Njoki Ndung’u, Mr Otiende Amolo,Mr Abdirashid Hussein Mr Bobby Mkangi Professor Christina Murray (South Africa) Dr Chaloka Beyani (Zambia) and Dr Frederick Ssempebwav (Uganda.)
34) On 28thaugust 2010, the new constitution was promulgated and became operational making Kenya the first independent African state to depart from the independence constitution.
Key changes in the New Constitution.
FEATURES OF THE NEW CONSTITUTION.
Why there was need to have a new constitution in Kenya.
The need to meet the changing needs of the Kenyan society, e.g. due to population growth.
The rise of gender sensitivity in Kenya/The need to address the rights of women which had not been adequately addressed in the outgoing constitution.
The constant misuse of executive authority by the Moi and Kenyatta regime/ the need to give less or more power to the executive.
The need to depart from the colonial policies that found their way into the outgoing constitution.
The need to safeguard against social vices like corruption and land grabbing.
The need to enhance unity and realize a liberal society due to political maturity.
Problems that Kenya faced in realization of a new constitutional dispensation.
Why Kenya’s new constitution is regarded as supreme.
Functions of the Kenyan constitution
Role played by the Kenyan constitution in governing the country
DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS
What is democracy?
The is derived from the Greek word Democratia (Demos meaning people and Kratas meaning ‘rule or power’). It is a form of government where political decisions are directly in the hands of the citizens.
Key aspects of a real democracy.
Types of democracy
1) Pure or direct democracy. This is where the people are directly involved and participate in decision-making. Such a democracy has an advantage in that the laws made are easily accepted by all the people since they feel they own the laws.
This is common form of democracy in smaller organizations and was also used in ancient Greece.
2) Indirect democracy. This is a type of democracy where citizens exercise their right in decision making not directly as individuals, but through their agreed representatives, elected by the citizens. Parliament acts as the basic institution in this type of democracy.
The elected may make Appointments of persons to fill other positions like the Cabinet or carry out Nomination (hand-picking of additional representatives to join the elected ones.
3) Constitutional Democracy. This is where democracy is exercised but within the limits of the constitution. The minority rights are guaranteed (freedom of expression, association and worship).It is also referred to as Liberal democracy and is a form of representative democracy.
Merits of democracy
Principles of democracy.
Principle-basic truth or general law.
Human rights
Human rights refers to the accepted principles of fairness and justice- or the universal moral rights that belong equally to all people in their capacity as human beings regardless of sex, race, and tribe, and language, place of origin, age or political beliefs.
Why human rights are important.
Classification of Human rights
Groups that monitor human rights in Kenya
Characteristics of human rights.
United Nations Charter on human rights.
This is a document that contains the basic human rights to which every person by virtue of being a human being is entitled to. It also reaffirms the equality of the rights of all men and women. The Universal Declaration if Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10th December 1948.. Member states that signed the document are supposed to publicize the declaration in their countries
The basic human rights contained in the Charter include;
Importance of the UN Charter on human rights.
lead to tangible improvement in the lives of people if they have as their key objectives realization of economic, social and political rights.
The Kenyan Bill of Rights
This is a statement of human or civil rights in the constitution of Kenya. The Bill of Rights is covered in chapter four of the constitution of Kenya (2010).
Importance of the Kenyan Bill Of Rights
Rights and fundamental freedoms contained in the Kenyan Bill of Rights.
Life begins at conception and no child should be deprived of life deliberately. Abortion is not therefore permitted unless occasioned by the need for emergency treatment or life of the mother is in danger.
People who attempt to commit suicide are also punishable on the strength of their right
Every person is equal before the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that both men and women are equal before the law. Any form of discrimination is illegal and is prohibited in the constitution.
Every person’s dignity should be respected and protected. One must not ridicule or embarrass other members of society.
This right protects a person from being detained without a good reason and without trial. No person will be subjected to physical or psychological torture, corporal punishment or cruel and inhuman treatment.
No one should be held in servitude or slavery or perform forced labour. Every employer should treat his or her employees with dignity and not to force them to work.
Every person has a right NOT to have him or herself, his or her property searched, or his or her possessions seized. Not revealing a person’s family or private affairs unnecessarily or private communications interfered with.
Every citizen has a right to assemble and participate in peaceful demonstrations and even present petitions to public authorities.
Every citizen is free to make political choices, which includes the right to form, or participate in forming, a political party and to participate in the activities of, a political party.Every citizen has the right to free, fair and regular elections based on universal suffrage and the free` expression of the will of the electors for any elective public body or office Every adult citizen has the right, without unreasonable restrictions, to be registered as a voter; to vote by secret ballot in any election or referendum and to be a candidate for public office, or office within a political party and, if elected, to hold office.
Citizens have a right to free movement and ownership of property in any part of the country.
Anyone is also free to leave the country or enter and remain in the country
Every person has the right to the highest attainable standard of health, which includes the right to health care services, including reproductive health care.Every person has the right to accessible and adequate housing, and to reasonable standards of sanitation.Every person has the right to be free from hunger, and to have adequate food of acceptable quality.Every person has the right to clean and safe water in adequate quantities.Every person has the right to social security. Every person has the right to education.A person shall not be denied emergency medical treatment.The State must provide appropriate social security to persons who are unable to support themselves and their dependants.
Consumers have the right to goods and services of reasonable quality.Consumers have the right to the information necessary for them to gain full benefit from goods and services.Consumers have the right to the protection of their health, safety, and economic interests.Consumers have the right to compensation for loss or injury arising from defects in goods or services.
Every worker has a right to fair labour practices like fair remuneration, reasonable working conditions, the right to join or practice in trade union activities and the right to go on strike .Every employer has a right to join an employers’ association and participate in its programmes and activities
Responsibility.
One must respect the right to fair labour practices of one’s employees. Employees on the other hand must conduct themselves responsibly, even during strikes, to avoid causing physical injury to innocent people, or destroying property.
Every person has the right to a clean and healthy environment. It is our duty to ensure that the environment is protected for the benefit of present and future generations.
Every person, whether individually or as a group, has freedom to manifest any religion or belief through worship, practice, teaching or observance, including observance of day of worship.One cannot be denied employment or educational opportunity because of belonging to a particular religion or because of one’s belief or religion.A person cannot be forced to engage in any act that goes against his or her belief or religion.
This guarantees all Kenyans the freedom to seek, receive or impart ideas or information. It also guarantees freedom of artistic creativity, academic freedom, and freedom to conduct scientific research.
The freedom and independence of the media is guaranteed. The state should not interfere with
the media.
Every person has a right to access information held by the state, or by others, which may be required for the protection of any right or fundamental freedom. The state is expected to make public any important information affecting the nation.Every person has a right to the correction or deletion of untrue or misleading information that affects the person.
Every person has the right to form, join and participate in the activities of an association of any kind, provided that the association is not engaged in illegal activities, such as stealing or killing.
Every person is entitled to own property either individually or as a group, in any part of the country. However the property has to be legally acquired.This right provides all Kenyans a fair opportunity to invest in property and thus, prosper.
Every person has the right to use a language, and embrace the culture of the person’s choice.Every person has the right to form or join cultural groups. Every person is also protected from being forced to join any such group.Each linguistic group is free to use their language, practice their culture, and form associations and other organs of the civil society.It is unacceptable to force another person to perform, observe or undergo any cultural practice or rite.
An adult has the right to marry a person of the opposite sex, based on the free consent of the parties. Parties to such a union enjoy equal rights. Both parties have a responsibility to respect the rights of their spouses during marriage and even in the event of its dissolution.It is wrong to deny one’s spouse access to marital property after separation or divorce. The constitution also recognizes marriages conducted under traditional, religious, personal or family law. Marrying of underage persons and forced marriages are outlawed in the constitution.
Every person should be subjected to an efficient, lawful, reasonable and procedurally fair administrative action. This promotes efficient administration in public offices.
Everybody should access justice and a reasonable fee will be charged to enhance this, if required. If this is not free, many people will not access justice which will continue to be a preserve of the rich people.
An arrested person has;
prisons alongside those already convicted)
Every person has the right to have any dispute that can be resolved through a court hearing be resolved in such a manner that will accord him or her fair and public hearing. An accused person has the following rights;
A person, who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned under the law, retains all rights and fundamental freedoms in the bill of rights. Except those that are impractical and inapplicable under the circumstances.A person who is detained or held in custody is entitled for an order Habeas Corpus- This is a law that states that a person who has been arrested should not be kept in prison longer than a particular period of time unless a judge in a court has decided that it is right. It is the right of the person who is detained, held in custody or imprisoned to be treated in a humane manner.
Application of the Kenyan bill of rights to specific groups of people in Kenya
Rights enjoyed by Children in Kenya
A child refers to a young person from birth to full physical development. The term also refers to a person who has not attained the age of eighteen. The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, and International Agreement on the Rights of the Child put in place in 1990.
The rights include;
~ Every child has the right to a name and nationality from birth.
~ Every child has the right to basic nutrition, shelter and health care.
~ Every child has the right to free and compulsory basic education.
~ Every child has the right to parental care and protection, which includes equal
responsibility of the mother and father to provide for the child, whether they are
married to each other or not.
~ Every child has the right to be protected from abuse, neglect, harmful cultural
practices, all forms of violence, inhuman treatment and punishment, and hazardous
or exploitative labour.
~ Every child has the right not to be detained, except as a measure of last resort, and when detained, to be held for the shortest appropriate period of time.
~ Every child has the right to separate from adults and in conditions that take account of the child’s sex and age.
~ Every child has the right to a child’s best interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child.
~ Children should be protected from exploitation such as child labour.
Rights enjoyed by Persons with disabilities in Kenya.
(a) A person with any disability is entitled to be treated with dignity and respect and to beaddressed and referred to in a manner that is not demeaning. A person with any disability is entitled
(b) A person with any disability is entitled to access educational institutions and facilities forpersons with disabilities that are integrated into society to the extent compatible with the interests of the person.
(c) A person with any disability is entitled to reasonable access to all places, public transport and information.
(d) A person with any disability is entitled to use Sign language, Braille or other appropriate means of communication.
(e) A person with any disability is entitled to access materials and devices to overcome constraints arising from the person’s disability.
Rights of the Youth in Kenya.
(a) Right to access relevant education and training.
(b) Right to have opportunities to associate, be represented and participate in political, social, economic and other spheres of life.
(c) Right to access employment.
(d) Youths are protected from harmful cultural practices and exploitation.
Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups in Kenya
The constitution specifies a marginalized community as;
~ A community that because of its relatively small population has been unable to fully participate in the integrated social and economic life of Kenya as a whole.
~ A traditional community that, out of need or desire to preserve its unique culture and identity from assimilation, has remained outside the integrated social and economic life of Kenya.
~ An indigenous community that has retained maintained a traditional lifestyle and livelihood based on a hunter or gatherer economy.
~ Pastoral persons and communities, whether nomadic or settled and because of their relative geographical location, have experienced only marginal participation in the integrated social and economic life of kenya as a whole.
Rights of Minorities and marginalized groups
Rights of older members of society in Kenya
The Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission
This commission was entrenched in the Constitution of Kenya (2010) to replace the KNHRC. The commission constitutes atleast three but not more than nine members appointed by the president with the approval of the national assembly.
Objectives;
Functions of the Kenya National Human Rights and Equality Commission.
HISTORY FORM THREE NOTES
Introduction
In the last Quarter of the 19th century, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic and political standing.They convened the Berlin conference of 1884-1885 (convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany Chancellor) where they shared Africa in Europe without regard to the inhabitants. This is what is termed the invasion of Africa.By 1914, apart from Liberia and Ethiopia, the rest of Africa had been colonized
The scramble and partition of Africa
Scramble
It refers to the rushing for something.In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by European powers to acquire various parts of Africa during the 19th century.
Partition
It refers to the sharing of something. In the African situation, it referred to the actual division of Africa by European powers during the Berlin conference of 1884 -1885Methods used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa.
1) Signing of treaties;
~ The British signed the Maasai Agreements (1904 and 1911), Buganda Agreement of 1900 and the Lewanika-Lochner treaty with Lozi. The royal Niger Company had by 1884, signed 37 treaties through George Goldie, with African leaders in Niger delta, Yorubaland and Gambia.
~ Carl peters signed treaties on behalf of Germany with the chiefs of Uzigua, Ukami, Usagara and ungulu.
These treaties facilitated the acquisition of those areas for colonization.
~ The Anglo-Germany Agreements of 1886 and 1890 and Heligoland between the British and the Germans over the sharing of East Africa.
~ The Anglo Italian treaty signed in 1891 between the Italians and the British over possession of Eritrea and the Somali coast.
~ The treaty between the British and Portugal and France in 1890 on the sharing of
Madagascar (France) Mozambique and Angola (Portugal).
2) Military conquest/ Use of force. Europeans employed outright war against those societies that resisted their invasion. E.g
Mozambique.
3) Use of missionaries as frontrunners. The Europeans used missionaries, carrying a bible in one hand and a gun in the other, who tried to convince the Africans to support the European goals.
~ Missionaries manipulated local quarrels and took sides in a view to promote European occupation. For example, in the case of Buganda where we had religious conflicts between Protestants, Muslims, Catholics and Traditionalists.
~ Sometimes the missionaries went to war against each other and against Africans. E.g the Franza-Ingeleza war of 1892 that pitted the Protestants (British) against the Catholics (French). Fredrick Lugard’s intervention on the side of Protestants set stage for the acquisition of Uganda by the British.
~ In Bulozi, Father Francois Coillard convinced Lewanika of the benefits of British protection.
~ In Nyasaland (Malawi) which was depicted as Livingstone’s country, missionaries (read role of Scottish missionaries) shaped public opinion in favour of imperial control.
4) Treachery and Divide and rule policy
~ The Europeans instigated inter-tribal wars causing some Africans to support them against warring communities. E.g. use of the Wanga against the Luo and the Luhya in Kenya, the Ndebele/shona against the Lozi in Rhodesia.
~ The Italians lied to Menelik II by signing a treaty of friendship but which was published in Italian version indicating that Ethiopia had agreed becoming an Italian protectorate.
~ The Maasai agreement was written in a language that the Lenana never understood.
5) Use of company rule. The British and the Germans used chartered companies to acquire and rule their colonies. For example, the role played by the British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes, Imperial British East African Company of Sir William Mackinnon and the German East Africa Company of Carl Peters.
6) Luring/enticements. The Europeans gave gifts like cloth, weapons tools, drinks etc to African chiefs like Lewanika of the Lozi and Mwanga of Buganda thus luring them into collaboration.
7) Diplomatic skills. This involved building relations with African leaders, which were later, used to acquire the areas. The British employed this method in Maasailand and Yorubaland.
8) A blend of diplomacy and force. The British for example initially signed treaties with the Ndebele (Moffat and Rudd treaties), but they fought them during the Ndebele war of 1897.
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA
Economic factors
been items of trade in Africa for centuries. The discovery of Diamond at Kimberly in the
1860s and Gold in the 1870s precipitated their appetite for Africa more.
Political reasons.
Strategic reasons
~ The construction of the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, promoted a link between Europe and Asia/ shortened the routes to Far East. It also promoted international trade. It also made Egypt gain some strategic importance to Europeans.
~ The inability of Khedive Ishmael (1863-1879) to pay for the cost of the construction of the canal (due to his extravagancy) led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal.
~ The dismayed French planned diversions of the Nile waters, and make Egypt a desert, after occupying territories to the south of Egypt.
~ It was against the backdrop that Britain claimed Uganda (source of the Nile) in 1894, Kenya (the gateway to Uganda) in 1895 and Sudan (where the Nile passes) in 1898.
The activities of France in Congo and West Africa, after loss of Egypt, through their Italian agent Savorgnan de Brazza in connection to acquisition of colonies alarmed other powers. This encouraged powers like Germany to join in the scramble and acquire Togo, Cameroon, Namibia and Tanganyika.
~ He endeavored to create a personal empire. In 1876, Leopold convened the Brussels
Geographical Conference where he formed a business company, the International
African Association comprising explorers and traders with a mission to civilize Africa, abolish slave trade and establish free trade.
~ As a result of the activities of his agent, Henry Morton Stanley who created the Congo Free State, Leopold had established a personal empire in 1884 .
~ It was the activities of king Leopold leading to intense rivalry amongst European nations over Congo that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference in 1884.
Social reasons
~ They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans by giving those gifts like cloths and beer, introducing economic activities like farming, carpentry, clerical work, among Africans, that were important virtues in the process of colonization.
~ Where they were in danger, they pressurized their home governments to protect them.
~ The missionaries had direct contact with the people of the interior of Africa and they were front-runners who paved way for the colonialists through their works.
~ They preached peace, love and hard work and hence calmed down the emotions of Africans towards the Europeans.
~ Some of them wrote exaggerated reports about Africa to convince Europeans to take interest in Africa.
The humanitarians in Europe like William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the missionaries who led the crusade against slave trade advocated for colonization of Africa in order to stop it and introduce Legitimate Trade.When slave trade was abolished, many European nations used it as an excuse to remain in some parts of Africa, control the region, enforce the anti-slavery treaties, and promote legitimate trade.
The pull factors
THE PROCESS OF PARTITION
The fore –runners to the process of partitioning Africa were the early explorers, missionaries and traders. Their activities were succeeded by the making of treaties and agreements in various parts of Africa between trading companies and the locals. . For example, the Buganda Agreement, the Heligoland Treaty and the Berlin act of 1884-1885.In places where the Europeans employed diplomacy, they won the support of many Africans who collaborated with the intruders. The Europeans sometimes blended diplomacy with wars of conquest or use of force especially against the resisting communities.The partitioning boundaries were drawn along physical features like rivers, mountains, etc.The Berlin conference On 15th November 1884, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the USA, Portugal and Italy convened in Berlin to lay down the rules for the partition and eliminate conflicts amongst European nations. Africans, whose continent was being shared, were not represented in the conference
The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, partitioned Africa into different spheres of influence without recourse to war.
Terms of the Berlin act of 1884-1885.
established in the area through establishment of firm colonial infrastructures to be followed by colonial administration.
Impacts of the Partition
Political effects
Social impacts
Economic effects
establishment of local industries.
commodities.
AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN COLONIZATION.
RESISTANCE
Some communities were keen on defending their age-old and ancient political, social and economic institutions and viewed the arrival of the Whiteman with suspicion. Their leaders did not want to lose their power, wealth and sources of prestige. Others were militarily prepared for the Europeans. E.g the Mandinka, Nandi, Ndebele and Ethiopia.
Some resisters were centralized states enjoying immense unity making it easy to mobilize people for a war.
The Maji Maji Rebellion (1905- 1907).
The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to German colonial rule in its African colonies. The Uprising lasted two years c over 10,000 square miles. Tanzania had been acquired largely by Dr. Karl Peters, who signed treaties with the Chiefs of Usagara, Ungula, Uzigua and Ukami, in 1885. The Rebellion involved the Zaramo, Matumbi, Bena, Ngindo, Pogoro, Bunga, Ngoni, Luguru, Wamwera and Ndendeule
Causes of the maji maji rebellion.
Course of the maji maji war.
The oppressive regime bred discontent among the Africans, and resentment reached a fever pitch in 1905 when drought hit the region. A Ngarambe prophet, Kinjikitile Ngwale emerged, who claimed to know the secret to a sacred liquid which could repel German bullets called “Maji Maji,” which means “sacred water.” Ngwale claimed to be possessed by a snake spirit called Hongo.Thus, armed with arrows, spears, and doused with Maji Maji water, the first warriors of the rebellion began what would become known as the Maji Maji Rebellion. The rebellion was led by Kinjeketile Ngwale, Abdalla Mpanda and Ngamea. On July 31, 1905, Matumbi tribesmen marched on to Samanga and destroyed the cotton crop as well as a trading post. Kinjikitile was arrested and hanged for treason. However, Kinjekitile’s ideas were spread widely through a whispering campaign called Njwiywia or Jujila by the Matumbi. Matumbi warriors uprooted cotton from an Akida’s farm at Nandete to provoke the chiefs to fight. On August 14, 1905, Ngindo tribesmen attacked a small party of missionaries on a safari; all five, including Bishop Spiss (the Roman Catholic Bishop of Dar es Salaam) were speared to death. The Ngindo drove their hated Akidas from their area. They boycotted cotton picking.By August 1905, Germans were restricted to four military stations i.e. Wahenga, Kilosa, Iringa and Songea. The apex of the rebellion came at Mahenge in August 1905 where several thousand Maji Maji warriors attacked but failed to overrun a German stronghold. On October 21, 1905 the Germans retaliated with an attack on the camp of the unsuspecting Ngoni people who had joined the rebellion killing hundreds of men, women, and children. This attack marked the beginning of a brutal counteroffensive that left an estimated 75,000 Maji Maji warriors dead by 1907. Forces from Iringa under Captain Migmann assisted in the recapture of Kabata by Major Johannes.Reinforcement arrived from Germany and in 1907 warriors were defeated by Governor Graf Von Gotzen. The Germans employed the scorched earth policy which destroyed all property on sight. The Africans lost faith in the magic water. Some surrendered while others fled to
Mozambique.
Consequences of the maji maji uprising
This disrupted economic activities such as agriculture and trade.
Reforms introduced by the German administration after the maji maji uprising.
Role of religion in the Maji Maji rebellion.
The Mandinka Resistance.
Samori Toure (c. 1830-1900)
One of the great kings and fighters of African freedom was the great Samori Toure. Born about 1830 in Sanankaro, SE of Kankan in present-day Guinea, Samori Toure chose the path of confrontation, using warfare and diplomacy, to deal with the French colonial incursion. His father was a Dyula trader, leading Toure to follow his family’s occupation. In the 1850s, he enrolled in the military forces at Madina (present-day Mali) to liberate his mother, captured during a slave raid by king Sori Birama of Bisandugu. Displaying extraordinary military skill and prowess, he and his mother were subsequently released in 1858. Coupled with his experience as a Dyula trader, he built his army. Samori employed the triple thrust of persuasion, threat and war, in the same way as Sundiata did in Mali, to organized Malinké chiefdoms and expand the Mandinka state. Between 1852 and 1882, Samori Toure had created the Mandinka Empire with the capital at Bisandugu, in present day Gambia.Samori’s army was powerful, disciplined, professional, and trained in modern day warfare. They were equipped with European guns. The army was divided into two flanks, the infantry or sofa, with 30,000 to 35,000 men, and the cavalry or sere of 3,000 men. There was a third wing of 500 men forming specially trained bodyguards. In 1881, Samori extended the empire to the east as far as Sikasso (in Mali) to the west, up to the Futa Djallon Empire. Meanwhile, the French were extending eastwards from Futa Djalon while the Mandinka were extending westwards towards Kenyeran trading centre, Next to the rich Bure Gold fields.In 1882, at the height of the Mandinka empire, the Frenc h accused Samori Touré of refusing to withdraw from an important market center, Kenyeran (his army had blockaded the market). They thus started war on him.
His bid to obtain assistance from the British to deal with the French failed as the later were not willing to enter into conflict with the French. From 1882 to 1885, Samori fought the French and had to sign infamous Bisandugu treaty on 28th march 1886 and then 1887.
Significance of the Bisandugu treaties (1886-1887)
In 1888, he took up arms again when the French reneged on the treaty by attempting to foster rebellion within his empire.
In 1890, he reorganized the army and concluded a treaty with the British in Sierra Leone, where he obtained modern weapons. He now stressed defense and employed guerilla tactics.
The Franco- Mandinka war (1891-1898)
Causes of the Franco-Mandinka war (1891-1898)
Course of the franco-mandinka war.
Samori waged a seven –year war against France whose army was led by Major Archinard. In 1891, with his improved weaponry and reorganized army, he defeated the French. In 1892, French forces overran the major centers of the Mandinka Empire, leaving death and destruction in their wake. In 1894, the French assembled all their troops in western Sudan (Senegal, Mali, Niger, etc…) to fight Samori.Between 1893 and 1898, Samori’s army retreated eastward, toward the Bandama and Como, resorted to the scorched earth tactic, destroying every piece of land he evacuated. He moved his capital east from Bisandugu to Dabakala, thus creating a second empire in 1893. This enabled him to delay the French. He formed a second empire, and moved his capital to Kong, in upper Cote d’Ivoire.
Disadvantages of Samori’s second empire
In 1898, Samori, forced to fight a total war against innumerable odds like famine and desertion that weakened his forces, was captured on September 29, 1898, in his camp in Gué (lé) mou at the town of Sikasso in present-day Côte d’Ivoire and exiled to Ndjolé, Gabon, where he died of pneumonia on June 2, 1900.
Factors that aided Samori Toure in offering a protracted resistance to the Europeans
French tactics.
believed that they were fighting a Jihad (holy war) and therefore fought with determination.
Why samori was finally defeated.
The Ndebele Resistance
Background
The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa (fleeing from the mfecane wars) who occupied what is now Matabeleland. Mzilikazi (Ndebele King) opened the door for the London Missionary Society led by Robert Moffat, who settled in Matabeleland in 1859. They assisted him in repairing his guns, inoculating cattle, writing and interpreting letters and providing medical care to the sick. Hehowever had little interest in Foreigners and even had those whose who accepted missionary influence killed. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and his son Lobengula took over.Lobengula was the Ndebele king at the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893. He went to great lengths to appease the increasingly aggressive British imperialists from the South, Portuguese invasion from Angola and Mozambique and Germans from the south west. He used his diplomatic skills to buy time before engaging in war with the British. He even tried to pit one European nation against the other (the Boers and the British). He in 1870 had granted a mining concession to Thomas Baines of Durban Gold Mining Co. in order to diffuse white intervention. In 1888, Lobengula signed the Moffat treat y which stated that he was not to sign any other treaty with other European groups without British permission. Rhodes sent his partner and agent Charles Rudd to compel Lobengula to acquiesce to the Rudd (mining) Concession- a verbal agreement between Lobengula and BSA Co granting the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland. In return, he was to get a gunboat on River Zambezi or 500 sterling ponds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and 100,000 cartridges. Lobengula’s conditions for concession were not incorporated in the final text. When the terms of the treaty were interpreted to him, he learned that he had been tricked into surrendering his kingdom to Europeans.In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a fruitless delegation of Indunas (Motshede and Babiyance) to London to meet Queen Victoria. Despite the Ndebele king’s repeal of the concession, Rhodes, supported by the British crown, enacted a charter of the newly created British South Africa Company investing it with an array of rights: the right to ma.ke treaties, to pass laws and to subject the natives to its police force, as well as to make grants of minerals and land to white settlers. Lobengula was thus pushed into reluctant resistance by white greedy rapacity.
Causes of the 1893 Ndebele war.
Course of the war.
The war broke out in October 1893. The British army was led by Dr.Starr Jameson and comprised the shona police and other mercenaries from South Africa. At that time, the Ndebele had been weakened by smallpox and inferior weapons leading to little confrontation between them and the British. Lobengula chose to evacuate his people towards Northern Rhodesia. Atthe two battles of Shangani River and Mbembezi. The Ndebele were defeated by superior European gun-fire. Lobengula finally fled to Bulawayo where he died in 1894. The conquerors took advantage of the natives’ inner divisions, with people of the low castes remaining passive and even some traitors helping the invaders. The aftermath of the British conquest in Zimbabwe was that cattle were seized from the natives and their land taken. Even the for the small plots that were left to them, Africans were often forcibly prevented from ploughing and sowing, since they were subjected to tax-collection and coerced labour in whiteowned farms. The Ndebele were pushed to the reserves of Gwaai and Shangani.
Second Matabele War (the Chimurenga war 1896-1897)
The war of liberation which was dubbed ‘Chimurenga’, or the Second Matabele War was a fulfillment of prophesy of a great Shona spirit, Mbuya Nehanda, sister of the great Shona prophet Chaminuka. Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual leader is in fact credited with fomenting the Second Ndebele War. He convinced the Ndebele that the White settlers were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time.
Causes of the Chimurenga war
Sometimes even the chiefs were also punished. E.g, Chief Moghabi’s village was burnt.
aristocrats. The traditional leaders were sometimes flogged before their subjects.
Course of the war.
Mlimo’s call to battle happened at a time when the BSA Co’s Administrator General Matabeleland, Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid in Dec. 1995 leaving the country’s defenses in disarray.
War in Matabeleland.On 29th March 1896, the Ndebele High Priest Umlugulu, with senior indunas, organized a ceremony to install Umfezela as Lobengula’s successor. On that day, The Ndebele rebels killed the whites on their farms as they found them by surprise. They also killed African policemen in the British force. The European settlers took refuge in fortified camps in Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe and Mangwe.The British immediately sent troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, but it cost the lives of many settlers, Ndebele, and Shona alike. The Matabele military defiance ended only when Burnham found and assassinated Mlimo, thanks to a Zulu informant. The Ndebele finally agreed to peace talks with Rhodes during which Rhodes agreed to disband the shona police and give the Ndebele headmen some powers as indunas.
The War in Mashonaland
On 17 June 1896, the Hwata dynasty at Mazowe attacked the Alice Mine. They succeeded in driving away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896. In the same month, Mashaykuma, working with the local spiritual leader Kagubi, the Zezuru Shona people in killing a British farmer Norton and his wife at Porta Farm in Norton.
With the war in Matabeleland ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington was able to concentrate his forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumbo-reshumba were captured and executed in 1898, but Mkwati, a priest of the Mwari shrine, was never captured and died in Mutoko. Traditional leaders played a major role in the rebellion, notably Chief Mashayamombe, who led resistance in Mhondoro, Gwabayana, Makoni, Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke.
Role of religion in the organization of the S hona –Ndebele resistance
Why the Ndebele and shona were defeated
while the former slave classes chose to even cooperate with the British.
reinforcement from Botswana and South Africa.
Results of the war.
COLLABORATION
What is collaboration?
This was a style in which Africans responded to European intrusion through diplomacy, adaptation or allying with the Europeans for military support and for material gains
Reasons for collaboration by some African communities.
The Lozi Collaboration
Factors, which influenced Lewanika of the Lozi to collaborate with the British
Lewanika faced an internal rebellion-to safeguard his position.
How Lewanika collaborated with the British.
Signing of treaties e.g. he first signed a treaty with Harry Ware in 1889 before signing the Lochner Treaty of 1890 and the Corydon Treaty of 1898. These treaties put Bulozi under British protectorate.Lewanika became friendly to British agents like Frank Lochner and the missionary, François Coillard, whom he allowed to establish a permanent mission station within his territory. He sent his sons to the Coillard mission school as a show of acceptance of westernization.
Lochner Treaty of 1890.
It was British missionary Francois Coillard who negotiated for the meeting between Frank Lochner, acting on behalf of Rhodes, and Lewanika in 1890. The treaty put Lewanika’s Kingdom under the protection of the British South African Company.
Terms of the treaty.
ruler as before.
monitor company activities and advise Lewanika on foreign affairs.
The treaty consequently implied that Lewanika had given up his kingdom to the British company.In 1897, Robert T. Coryndon a former police officer was sent as a British resident in Bulozi. Upon his arrival, he made arrangements for the signing of the Lawley treaty of 1898 which further reduced the size of the area governed by Lewanika.
In October 1900, he signed another treaty, the Coryndon Treaty with Lewanika.
The Coryndon Treaty (1900)
It had the following terms;
NB; the Coryndon treaty made Lewanika a mere employee of the company, receiving only a stipend. He lost control of the former vassal states that no longer would pay tribute to him since they were now under the British.In the final run, Lewanika lost his independence just like any other collaborator or resistor.
Results of Lewanika collaboration
The Buganda collaboration.
By the mid 19th century, Buganda had become the most powerful state in the interior of East Africa. However despite this might, the Kabakas (Mutesa I and Mwanga) chose the path of collaboration instead of resisting the European intrusion.
Why kabaka Mutesa I (1856-1884) collaborated with the Europeans.
Kabaka Mwanga (1884-1898)
Mwanga’s main problem when he took over power was religious indecision which eventually generated political instability. In January 1885, he executed three C.M.S converts. In October 1885, he had Bishop Hannington killed. In May 1886, 30 young converts were burnt to death at Namugongo for refusing to denounce their Christian faith.
In 1888, under the urge of the traditionalists, he unsuccessfully attempted to expel all foreigners whom he blamed for causing chaos in his kingdom. He instead was disposed by a combined force of Muslims, Catholics and Protestants and replaced by his brother Kiwewa, sharing authority with foreigners.In 1890, Mwanga recaptured the throne assisted by the Christians and Kabalega of Bunyoro kingdom. He signed a protectorate treaty with Carl peters for the Germans and rejected a treaty offer by Fredrick Jackson of IBEACO. IN 1891, Mwanga signed a treaty of collaboration with Fredrick Lugard, the First British administrator sent to Uganda. This was after the Heligoland Treaty of 1890 had put Uganda a British sphere of influence.
Why Mwanga collaborated
The Buganda agreement
The Buganda agreement was signed in 1900 between Sir Harry Johnstone, British Official, and Apollo Kagwa, representing the Baganda
Reasons for signing of the Buganda agreement
Terms of the Buganda agreement
Results of the Buganda agreement.
Results of African collaboration
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA
CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA
Factors that contributed to the scramble and partition of East Africa
The Europeans were also looking for places to invest their capital.
~ East Africa was to be occupied as a means of stamping out slave trade and replacing
it with legitimate trade.
~ The Europeans were keen on spreading their culture to east Africa.
~ They wanted to protect their missionaries who were already operating in east Africa
The process of Partition
The Berlin conference failed to fully resolve the rivalry between the Germans and the British in East Africa. The activities of Karl Peters and Harry Johnstone for the Germans and the British respectively in the Mount Kilimanjaro region depicted intense rivalry which almost led to war.The two signed treaties with local chiefs as a way of legalizing their arbitrary declaration of their spheres of influence. Karl peters even declared german protectorate over Ungulu, Uzigua, Usagara and Ukami.These activities together with those of Sir William Mackinnon of the Imperial British East Africa Company became the immediate cause of the partition of east Africa.The partition of East Africa was sealed through the following two treaties.
The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886
The agreement facilitated peaceful settlement of the german and British claims on east Africa as follows;
However, the treaty failed to determine the western boundary, thus leaving Uganda up for grab to any power that got there first. Uganda therefore became a theatre of intense rivalry between Karl Peters who even secured a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga in 1890 and Fredrick Lugard who tried in vain to sign a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga.
This tension is what led to the Heligoland Treaty of 1890.
Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890
This treaty thus ended the scramble for and partition of East Africa.
BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA
Methods used by the British to occupy Kenya.
~ A treaty by Sir William Mackinnon and the Sultan of Zanzibar Barghash in 1887
which effectively put Zanzibar under the British for 50 years.
~ The Maasai Agreements of 1904 and 1911 between Oloibon Lenana and the British
~ The Anglo-Germany Treaties of 1886 and 1890.
Achievements of the IBEAC.
communities such as the Nandi, Maasai and Akamba.
Reasons why Britain used the IBEA Company to administer her possession
Why company rule had failed by 1895.
The company thus surrendered the Charter in 1895 to the British government for a
compensation of 250,000 dollars
Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the 19th century?
KENYA PEOPLES’ RESPONSES BRITISH INVASION OF KENYA
Africans in Kenya offered varied responses to the British intrusion into their country. Some resisted while other collaborated.The communities that resisted actively included the Nandi, Agiryama, Bukusu, Somali and sections of the Agikuyu
The Nandi Resistance (1895-1906)
Reasons why the Nandi resisted British occupation of their land
Course of the Nandi rebellion
The Nandi wars of resistance began in 1895. The Nandi mainly employed guerilla warfare ambushing the caravan traders and mail carriers who passed in their territory.
When two Nandi warriors strayed into the Guasa Mesa administrative camp headed by Andrew Dick in 1895, he murdered them as a response to the attacks by the Nandi on foreigners passing in their territory.The Nandi retaliated through the murder of a British trader, Peter West and thirty of his workers. This sparked off British punitive expeditions against the Nandi with the first in 1897 which however failed to stop the Nandi raids.
When the railway reached the Nandi territory, they refused to cooperate with the railway builders and even kept stealing building materials to make weapons and ornaments. They even ambushed and murdered railway builders.In 1900, the British sent three punitive expeditions under Colonel Evatt, the commander of the Uganda Rifles reinforced by the Maasai, Baganda, Swahili and Indian mercenaries.The Nandi were supported by the Kipsigis enabling them to resist for so long causing high death toll on the British and the Nandi as well.The year 1901 witnessed a temporary truce worked out by the British administrator, Walter Mayes (1901-1905), after realizing the heavy causalities both sides were experiencing.
The war was re-ignited when the Nandi realized that the British had started settling and farming on their land. They destroyed the railway in protest. The British reacted by destroying crops and villages and stealing cattle for the next three years.
The Nandi war of resistance only ended when the British officer in Nandi, Captain
Meinertzhagen, hatched a plan to have Koitalel, the chief coordinator of the résistance, killed. He and his advisers were killed in October 1905, during a “peace” meeting convened by Meinertzhagen.
The Nandi finally sought for peace in December 1905 ending the ten year long resistance.
Why the Nandi offered the longest and strongest ever resistance to the British intrusion in Kenya.
Why the Nandi were defeated in the hands of the British
Results of the Nandi resistance.
independence.
Agiriama resistance.
A Bantu speaking group inhabiting the coastal region, their reaction to the British invasion was motivated by the reaction of the Mazrui Arabs and the Swahili who rose up against the British in 1895.The Agiriama reaction began as an offer of support to the Mazrui Arabs, with whom they had long trading links, during their conflict with the British over succession to the TakaunguSheikhdom. The Agiriama was also hitting back against the Busaidi Arabs who were encroaching on their territory. The British had supported the Al Busaidi collaborators throughout succession conflict.The British reacted by bombarding Rashid’s Headquarters at Mweli forcing the Agiriama and the Mazrui to resort to guerilla warfare. While the Mazrui Arabs later surrendered, the Agiriama now resorted to full scale résistance against the British encroachment in 1914.
Causes of the Agiriama resistance
Course of the resistance
The Agiriama resistance was inspired by a Giriama prophetess, Mekatilili WA Menza. She was joined by an Elder, Wanje wa Madorika in mobilizing people to a mass resistance against the British rule.The immediate course of their reaction was the forced military recruitment into the KAR. To provoke the British to war, they barred their young men from moving outside their villages to work.Mekatilili and Wanje called on the people to return to their ancestral shrine at Kaya Fungo and offer sacrifices and denounced all appointed puppet rulers in favour of the traditional council of elders.
The two administered traditional oaths to unite and inspire the people to war. I.e. the Mukushekushe oath for women and the Fisi oat for men.When a state of emergency was declared by the British over the Agiriama, they resorted to Hitand-run warfare. They attacked the homes of loyalists, Europeans and collaborators forcing the missionaries to seeker refuge at Rabai. The British countered the hit-and-run warfare with burning villages and crops and driving away livestockThe resistance only subsided when Mekatilili and Wanje were arrested and deported to Kisii.The Arabs, under Fadhili bin Omari, mediated between the Agiriama and the British, marking the end of the war under the following terms;
public works.
Role of Mekatilili in the Agiriama resistance.
nationalistic struggles for independence.
Results of the Agiriama resistance to the British
Bukusu resistance
Reasons why the Bukusu resisted the British rule
Course of the resistance
The Bukusu resistance began with the ambush of a trade caravan heading to Ravine through bukusuland. The Bukusu stole all the rifles. When they were commanded to surrender all the guns in 1894 and declined, the British sent a punitive expedition which however was defeated. The British administrator at Elureko, Charles Hobley sought for reinforcement from Major William Grant of the Ugandan protectorate.
In 1895, at the battles of Lumboka and Chetambe, the Bukusu were summarily defeated.
Methods used by the Bukusu to resist the British.
Effects of the Bukusu resistance
Protectorate
and sheep.
The Somali resistance.
The Somali resistance was a reaction to the British declaration that Jubaland was a British protectorate. They were led by their leader Ahmad bin Murgan.
causes of Somali resistance.
Course of the resistance.
The British initially reacted minimally to the Somali aggression on their Kisimayu
neighbourhood in 1898 due to the following reasons;
Results of the Somali resistance
Collaboration
In Kenya, the Maasai, Wanga and a section of the Agikuyu, Akamba, and Luo collabo rated.
The Maasai collaboration
In the 19th century, the Maasai community changed from a once feared community to one marred by succession disputes and natural calamities. The Disputes between Lenana and Sendeyo over succession of Mbatian after he died weakened the Maasai community to the level of merely collaborating with the British intruders. Sendeyo moved with his followers to northern Tanzania leaving behind Lenana’s group who chose the path of collaboration.
Reasons for the Maasai collaboration with the British
The attempt by Lenana to secure assistance against Sendeyo was the beginning of his collaboration with the British.The Kedong massacre incident (Maasai warriors attacked a caravan of Swahili and Agikuyu traders travelling from Ravine) and the resultant death of 100 Maasai at the hands of three white men (Andrew Dick and two French companions) made the Maasai the immediately seek for collaboration with the British.They cooperated with the British in establishment of colonial administration. The provided mercenaries in the British punitive expedition against the Nandi, Kipsigis and Kikuyu. Maasai were rewarded with cattle acquired from uncooperative peoples e.g. The Nandi and Agikuyu
They exchanged gifts and used British manufactured goods. Lenana was made a paramount chief. Between 1904 and 1923, a fair proportion of the Maasai agreed to be moved from one grazing land to another to pave way for British settlement.They signed the first Maasai agreement in 1904 by which they moved into two reserves, one to the south of Ngong and the railway and the other up on the Laikipia plateau. A corridor of five kilometres was set aside in Kinangop for the Eunoto ceremony that accompanied circumcision. The second Maasai agreement of 1911 implied the Maasai abandon the Laikipia plateau to rejoin others in the enlarged southern reserve.
Results of the Maasai collaboration
Wanga Collaboration
Nabongo Mumia, the Wanga leader from 1880, was an ambitious and shrewd leader who had the desire to expand his Kingdom through collaboration with British intruders and soliciting their military assistance.
Reasons for Wanga Collaboration
Key notes for the teacher and students- @Cheloti 2013 Page 33
Process of Wanga Collaboration.
Mumia’s contact with the outside world began when he befriended the Swahili and Arabcaravan traders and later the IBEA Company merchants when they visited wangaland.They built a fort and a trading station at Elureko, his capital, which was to remain the headquarters of the British administration in western Kenya until 1920.
Ways in which Nabongo of Wanga collaborate with the British.
Results of the Wanga collaboration with the British.
Mixed reactions
The communities that exhibited mixed reaction were the Akamba, Agikuyu and Luo.
The Akamba Reaction
The arrival of the British traders threatened to destabilize the prominence enjoyed by the Akamba as middlemen during the long distance trade. The British even tried to stop the Akamba from organizing raids on their Oromo, Agikuyu and Maasai neighbours.
Why did the Akamba decide to resist British administration?
Course of the Akamba resistance.
In 1890, Nzibu Mweu led he Akamba in boycotting to sell goods to the company agents.
Prophetess Syonguu also ordered the Iveti Warriors to attack the Masaku fort in the same year as a reaction to the cutting down of the ithembo tree for a flagpole.The British agents were defeated during this surprise attack.When the British tried to stop the Akamba raids on their neighbours in 1894, a Warrior, Mwatu wa Ngoma ordered the Akamba warriors, who had been inspired by medicinemen, to attack the British.
The British responded with devastating consequences on the side of the Akamba forcing them into collaboration with the British District Commissioner, John Ainsworth. Mwatu wa Ngoma became a collaborator.Later, another gallant fighter, Mwanamuka, led the Kangundo people to attack the colonial police at Mukuyuni and Mwala, killing six. With the assistance of Maasai mercenaries, the British sent a punitive expedition against the Akamba and even confiscated their livestock.When Mwanamuka tried to blockade the Lukenya area to cut off communication between Fort Smith and Masaku, he was met with devastating consequences that forced him to also petition for peace.
Why a section of the Akamba collaborated with the British.
Reasons for the Akamba defeat
Consequences of the Akamba reaction
The Agikuyu reaction
The Agikuyu was also a highly segmented nature lacking in territorial unity. This explains why they had mixed reaction against the British.
Explain the causes of Agikuyu resistance.
Reasons why some Agikuyu collaborated.
Organization of the Agikuyu reaction
When captain Lugard established a fort at Dagoretti in 1890, he began relating with Waiyaki WA Hinga who was in charge of the area. Wayaki’s people supplied Lugard’s men with food.However, when Wilson took over from Lugard who had left for Uganda, his soldiers began looting food and livestock from the Agikuyu. The Agikuyu reacted by setting the Dagoretti fort on fire. Waiyaki was arrested by the forces sent by Sub-commissioner Ainsworth, and died enroute to Mombasa. It is alleged that he was buried alive at Kibwezi after provoking his captors.Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu, a collaborator, succeeded Waiyaki at Dagoretti. In 1899, Fort Dagoretti was closed down due to a series of raids. Francis Hall opened another Fort at Murang’a (renamed Fort Hall after his death in 1901) after the locals were subdued and forced to accept the British Colonial rule.
British trader John Boyes forged an alliance with Karuri WA Gakure, the Agikuyu leader at Fort Hall, which enabled him to subdue the resisting Agikuyu groups. He also made contacts with Wang’ombe of Gaki (Nyeri) who together with Gakure supplied the British with mercenaries in exchange for confiscated loots from resisting groups.Meinertzhagen, who succeeded Francis Hall in 1902, subdued the Muruku and Tetu section (led by Chief Gakere) of the Agikuyu. Chief Gakere was murdered and his associates deported to the coast after they wiped out the entire Asian caravan on the slopes of the Aberdares.The Agikuyu of Iriani (Nyeri) were defeated in 1904 and their Aembu and Ameru allies sought for peace in 1906, having seen the effects of resisting.By 1910, British rule had been established in the entire Mount Kenya region. With the Agikuyu settling peacefully in the reserves upto 1920s when they began to agitate again.
Results of the Agikuyu mixed reaction.
The Luo reaction.
The resisters were the Luo of Sakwa, seme, Uyoma, Ugenya and Kisumu. The collaborators were the Luo of Gem and Asembo, led by Chief (Ruoth) Odera Akang’o.
Reasons for the resistance against the British by the Luo of Ugenya.
Why the Gem and Asembo Luos collaborated.
Course of the Luo resistance.
The Luo of Ugenya set off the resistance by attacking the Wanga in an attempt to expand. They vandalized British key installations like the telegraph wires and administrative stations.In 1896, the British sent an expedition against them and 200 people were killed.
When the British attacked the Seme Luo for cattle and Grains, they were provoked into revolting. They attacked the Asembo Luo who had collaborated with the British. The British invaded them in 1898 with devastating effects in terms of property and life loss.
The Luo of Kisumu rose up in 1898 attacking a British Canoe party on Winam Gulf for taking their fish without paying. They were however overcome.The Gem and Asembo Luos led by Ruoth Odera Akang’o supported the British throughout all these confrontations.
Results of the Luo reaction
Colonial system of administration in Kenya
In their administration of Kenya, the British employed both central government and local government as the basic administrative framework.
Central Government
The protectorate was divided into provinces headed by Provincial commissioners, who acted as representatives of the Governor. The governor was answerable to the colonial s ecretary in Britain.
Hierarchy of colonial administration in Kenya
implemented the policies and laws that were enacted by the legislative council that was established in 1907. They supervised the work of DCs, Dos and the entire provincial administration on behalf of the governor.
The advisory and Executive Councils guide the governor and effected the colonial policies.
Local Government.
The British introduced the Local Government in colonial Kenya because;
development
Local Native Councils
They were established in 1922 after the passing of the Native Authority Ordinance.
In 1924, the District Advisory Councils (DACs) were renamed Local Native Councils (LNCs)
Objectives of the LNCs
Achievements of the Local Native councils
NB; in 1948, the LNCs were renamed African Native Councils. Pascal Nabwane became the first African chairmen of the ADCs in 1958. The ADCs operated as local authorities for Africans until 1963.
Impact of Local government
Factors that undermined the local Government
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
The methods mainly used by the British to administer their colonies were
Difference between direct rule and indirect rule.
Indirect rule was a system under which the British recognized the existing African political system and used it to rule over the colonies.Direct rule was a system where the Europeans/the British entrenched themselves in the direct administration of their colonies. Indigenous political and administrative institutions and leaders are replaced with European systems.
Indirect rule
This was a policy advanced by Fredrick Lugard, the British High Commissioner in the protectorate of Northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906.To Lugard, as summed up in his book, The Dual Mandate in the Tropical Africa (1922),”the resident acts as a sympathetic adviser to the native chief, on matters of general policy. But the native ruler issues his instructions to the subordinate chiefs and district heads, not as orders of the resident but as his own”.Such a system was applied in Kenya and in West Africa.
Why Britain used indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria
British rule in Kenya
In Kenya, the British lacked both funds and experienced personnel to facilitate their administration. Kenya also did not have a reference model of an administrative system –like that in Buganda Kingdom. It was only among the Wanga section of the Abaluhyia and the Maasai where traditional chiefs that were recognized by the British existed.
Where the institution of chieftainship did not exist as the case of the Agikuyu, the British appointed chiefs (men with ability to communicate in Kiswahili and organize porters) like Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Murang’a and Wang’ombe wa Ihura in Nyeri. The passing of the Village Headman Act in 1902 gave the chiefs the responsibilities of maintaining public order, hearing of petty cases and clearing of roads and footpaths.The 1912 0rdinance increased the powers of the chiefs and their assistants (headmen); they were now allowed to employ other persons to assist them, such as messengers and retainers. They were to assist the District officers in Tax collection and control brewing of illegal liquor and cultivation of poisonous plants like Cannabis sativa. They were to control carrying of weapons and mobilize African labour for public works.
The selected colonial chiefs however faced two problems;
The British in Nigeria.
Nigeria comprised the Lagos colony and protectorate, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate. These regions were later amalgamated into the Nigerian protectorate in 1914.In Northern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard employed indirect rule.
Reasons for the use of indirect rule by the British in northern Nigeria.
the local chiefs in administration while employing very few British officials.
Indirect administration as applied in northern Nigeria
In Northern Nigeria, the existing emirates with centralized system of administration formed thebasis of local governance. The Emirs were retained and were to rule under supervision of the British resident officials.The British administration was based on the local customs and laws. Chiefs chosen by the British were to be acceptable by the local people. Local chiefs collected taxes and a portion of it was given to the Central Government.Local Native Courts operated as per the laws of the land. The Emirs were allowed to try cases in their own Muslim courts.The Emirs were mandated to maintain law and order. They possessed firearms.In 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were Brought under one syatem of administration.
However Lugard found it hard to apply indirect rule in Southern Nigeria.
Why indirect rule was not successful applied in southern Nigeria
Problems associated with indirect rule as a system of government.
Effects of indirect rule.
DIRECT RULE
This system was mainly used in regions with large white settler population such as Algeria, south Nigeria and Zimbabwe.
Direct rule in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe was colonized by the British South African Company under John Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes used his resources to sponsor a group of South African Europeans who set out to establish in Southern Rhodesia, a satellite of South African System.
They began off by engaging the Ndebele in a series of wars from 1893 before finally occupying the fertile land in Mashonaland and Matabeleland.
Characteristics of direct rule in Zimbabwe
Reasons for use of direct rule by the British in Zimbabwe
The BSAC administrative structure in Southern Rhodesia (1905-1923)
The government was headed by a resident Commissioner who was appointed by the Company stationed at Salisbury. Below him were various commissioners in charge of the Districts (all Europeans). Below them were African Chiefs whose duty included collecting tax, recruiting labour and maintaining law and order.In 1898, a LEGCO was established –heavily dominated by the European settlers. An Executive Council, consisting of the Resident Commissioner and 4 nominees of BSA.Co was also established. In 1902, a Native Affairs Department, headed by a European Native Commissioner was created thus entrenching the dominance of Europeans in Zimbabwe. The duty of the commissioner was to allocate land to Africans, collect taxes and recruit labour.For lack of enough valuable minerals in Zimbabwe as expected, the Europeans compensated by acquiring large tracts of land from African communities with some having grants of upto 3000 acre pieces of land.( Europeans occupied 21 million acres while Africans despite their majority were confined to 24 million acre reserves.)
The Company relinquished control in 1923 to for Zimbabwe to become a crown colony.
Crown colony Rule (1923-1953)
Why the settlers favoured crown colony over merger with South Africa.
As a crown colony, a Governor was appointed in 1923 to represent the Queen of England. British government was empowered by the constitution to veto any legislation that would discriminate against Africans. This however never happened practically.
For example, the government formulated the Two-Pyramids Policy or parallel development policy characterized by discrimination against Africans. At the base of the pyramid was the majority Africans relegated to offering cheap labour for the white settlers. At the apex were the minority whites who took the highest positions in the economic and political system.To legitimize the two pyramids policy were two Acts that were passed in 1930 and 1934.
The Act introduced rigid territorial segregation with land being divided into white’s and Africans’ portions. No African was allowed to acquire land outside their segregated portion.The minority whites acquired over half of the best arable land. Africans were given the semi arid areas infested by mosquitoes.
Land was categorized into four;
1) Native Reserve Area- for Africans population. The Land was characterized with congestion since it was inadequate.
2) Native Purchase Area- for Africans to buy. Such areas had harsh climatic conditions.
3) European Area- For Whites only.
4) Unassigned Area- For government expansion of buildings and other uses.
Effects of the Land Apportionment Act on Africans
faced starvation, those in towns faced slum life.
farms. Women took over men’s jobs in the reserves.
Zimbabwe.
Europeans.
The prime objective of the Act was to protect white workers from African competition. The government through the act prohibited Africans from setting up a trade union. Africans from beyond southern Rhodesia were imported to provide labour to the whites at low wages.The act resulted in relegation of Africans to the lowest level while skilled jobs were set aside for the Europeans. The two acts resulted in the humiliating conditions for the Africans which resulted in the rise of African Nationalism that continued more after the Second World War.As an answer to African agitation, the government invited more white settlers giving them more large tracts of land. The settlers also began to agitate for the formation of a federation of the three central African territories (southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland).In 1953, the British government gave approval for the formation of the federation of central African countries.
The Central African Federation.
The federation was organized as follows;
1) Each territory had its own government responsible for local administration.
2) Each territorial government was responsible for all aspects of native affairs within its boundaries.
3) The British government was directly involved in the administration of the two northern protectorates.
4) An African Board was established to ensure that no racist legislation against the Africans was passed in the federation parliament.
5) The Federal Parliament was given powers to deal with all matters involving more than one territory and foreign affairs.The first Prime Minister of the Federation, Garfield Todd, being sympathetic to African protests over formation of the federation, legalized the formation of trade Unions and funded African education and Agriculture. Unfortunately when Todd was replaced in 1958, all his programmees were abandoned.
In 1963, the federation was dissolved and shortly afterwards Malawi and Zambia became independent as southern Rhodesia remained a self -governing colony.
The reign of Ian Smith
Ian Smith’s Rhodesian Front Party, controlled by the white extremists with no regards for Africans, won the 1962 elections.On 15th October 1965, Smith led the settlers to announce a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI), from Britain implying that political leadership was now fully in the hands of the white rebel settlers.
This declaration provoked instant protest not only within Africa but also from the international community. UN declared sanctions against South Rhodesia though countries like South Africa and Portugal unfortunately continued to trade with her making the sanctions ineffective.In 1970, UDI declared itself a republic under a new constitution that entrenched whites’ position in Zimbabwe by spelling the following;
Effects of British rule in Zimbabwe.
ASSIMILATION
Definition.
This was a system of administration in which French colonies were given a culture and civilization similar to that of France. This system was influenced by the French revolution of 1789, which emphasized the equality of all men.In Africa, it was perfected by Lewis Faidherbe in Senegal when he was governor from 1854 to 1865.To many historians Assimilation was a deliberate French policy to help them destroy African Chieftaincies and Kingdoms that were thriving at the time of their arrival. Under the system, Africans had to;
~ Learn the French language.
~ Practice the French legal system.
~ Apply the French civil and political system.
~ Convert to Christianity and learn French mannerism including eating and dressing habits.Later on assimilation evolved into association which had been first applied in Africa in central Africa by Savorgnan de Brazza.Association involved letting the subjects develop independently due to the belief that nonwesterners were racially inferior and would therefore never be accepted as equal to Europeans even when assimilated.
French administration in West Africa
The French system of administration was highly centralized.The eight French colonies were grouped into the confederation of French West Africa. They were governed from one capital, Dakar, Senegal.The federation was headed by a Governor-General answerable to the French Minister for colonies in Paris. Each colony was headed by a lieutenant- Governor answerable to the Governor-General in Dakar.Each colony was divided into cercles (provinces), each headed by a commandant de cercle. Each cercle was further divided into small districts each headed by a chef de sub-division below whom were African chiefs (chefs de cantons in charge of locations). At the base were chefs de village in charge of the sub-locations.All the French overseas colonies were seen as overseas provinces and each elected a deputy to the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris (lower House). However the French administrators appointed lacked high standards of education and some were military officers simply rewarded with senior administrative positions. This led to inefficiency.
French administration in Senegal
In Senegal, the policy of assimilation was only applied in the four communes of St.Louis, Goree, Rufisque and Dakar. In the rest of the country, African chiefs who ruled were put I three grades namely;
The privileges which were enjoyed by assimilated Africans in the four communes of Senegal included;
Economic privileges
~ They were exempted from forced labour.
~ They were allowed to work in France.
~ They were exempted from paying taxes.
~ They were allowed trading rights like the French people.
Political privileges
~ They were allowed to send representatives to the French Chamber of Deputies.
~ They were enfranchised like the French people in France (right to vote)
~ They enjoyed the rights of the French Judicial System like the French.
~ They were allowed to operate Local Authority’ structures which were similar to those in France.
~ They were allowed to retain Muslim law.
~ They were exempted from arbitrary arrest/through the Indigenization policy.
Characteristics of assimilation.
Reasons why assimilation was successful in the four communes
Factors that undermined the application of the French policy of assimilation in West Africa
Ways in which Nationalism undermined the policy of Assimilation in French West Africa.
separatism, which were against the policy of assimilation.
Consequences of assimilation in Senegal.
The policy of association.
Under this system, the French colonial government was to respect the cultures of her colonial peoples and allow them to develop independently rather than force them to adopt French civilization and culture.Unlike the assimilated Africans, subjects retained their cultural practices e.g polygamy and Islam. The subject came under a system of law known as indigenat where the subject could suffer arbitrary arrest or be forced to serve a longer period in the army than assimilated citizens
Why the French government replaced the policy of assimilation with that of association in 1945
The similarities between the French and the British colonial administrations
Main differences
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD IN KENYA.
The Uganda Railway
The railway was built between 1896 and 1901 with George Whitehouse as the Engineer. Work was mainly done by 32,000 Indian coolies and 5,000 clerks and craftsmen. The locals could not provide skilled labour. It costed the British taxpayers about 6 million sterling pounds.
Reasons for the construction of the Uganda railway line.
The construction
The railway construction works commenced in Mombasa in 1896. By 1901, the railway had reached Kisumu (then Port Florence) passing through Nairobi in 1899.
Numerous feeder lines were later laid down as follows;
The Nairobi –Thika Branch(1914), Konza – Magadi (1915), Voi- Moshi(1918), Rongai- Solai (1925), Eldoret-Kitale(1926), Eldoret- Jinja (1927), Gilgil-Nyahururu(1929), Thika- Nanyuki(1930)and Kisumu – Butere(1930)
In 1948, the Kenya Uganda Railway had been linked with the Tanganyika network to become the East African Railways.
Problems experienced during the construction of the Uganda railway.
The effects of railway construction.
SETTLER FARMING AND COLONIAL LAND POLICIES
As a means of raising revenue to meet the cost of administering the Kenya colony and maintain the Uganda railway, the colonial government encouraged the influx of white settlers to the ‘white Highlands’.
The administration did this by;
The settlers however faced the initial challenges of crop and animal diseases, labour shortage, lack of inputs and African aggression.
Why the colonial government encouraged white settlement in Kenya.
The reasons why the colonial administration led by Sir Charles Eliot (1900- 1904) and later Sir Edward Northey encouraged settler farming in the white highlands were;
Factors which promoted settler farming
Problems experienced by settlers.
Settler Crop cultivation
The main crops cultivated were coffee, wheat, tea and sisal.
1) Coffee.
Coffee was first introduced by the Roman Catholic Fathers of St. Austin’s Mission near Nairobi in 1889. It required plenty of farm inputs in terms of chemicals and labour. Therefore was a preserve of wealthy European settlers.Coffee Planters Corporation was founded in 1908 by Lord Delamere’s Efforts, and led to the spread in the growing of coffee. By 1913, coffee had become the leading cash crop in Kenya grown mainly in Murang’a, Thika and Kiambu.Africans were unfortunately not allowed to grow coffee until 1937
Reasons why Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow coffee before 1937
2) Wheat.
It was introduced in Kenya in 1903 by Lord Delamere who experimented on his Njoro farm. It was however until 1912, when a more resistant variety was developed, that wheat growing took root in Kenya.In 1908, Lord Delamere set up Unga Ltd which boosted wheat farming in Kenya. It was grown in the Nakuru and Uasin Gishu areas. Like coffee, wheat farming was the preserve of wealthy European settlers from Australia,
Canada, Britain and South Africa. Africans began to grow wheat only after independence.
3) Sisal.
It was introduced in Kenya from Tanganyika in 1893 by Richard Hindorf, a german Doctor. Initially, it was cultivated around Thika in 1904. By 1920, it had become the second –largest income-earning crop after coffee.The main sisal growing areas included Baringo, Koibatek, Ol Donyo Sabuk, Ruiru, Thika, Voi, Taita and Taveta.Africans began growing coffee in 1964 though its growth declined due to the completion it faced from synthetic fibre.
4) Tea.
Tea was introduced in Kenya in 1903 around Limuru by Messrs Caine Brothers. It was until 1925 when tea began being grown successful with large tea estates being established by tea companies like Brooke Bond and Africa Highland from India.The main tea growing areas were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Murang’a and Kiambu.
Stock rearing.
Lord Delamere carried out many experiments in sheep and cattle rearing at his Equator Ranch in Njoro though the Maasai raids in his farm and cattle diseases frustrated his efforts.After cross-breeding exotic types with local stock, he came up with more resistant variety. The government also set up an experimental livestock farm in Naivasha.
In 1925, the Kenya Cooperative Creameries was established due to Delamere’s efforts. Later, the Uplands Bacon Factory was established near Limuru to promote pig rearing.
In 1930, the Kenya Farmers Association (KFA) was established Colonial land policies in Kenya.To empower the settlers to take up more arable land in Kenya, the Legislative council passed the following Land Acts or Ordinances;
1) The Indian Acquisition Act (1896). it empowered the authorities to take over land for the railway, government construction and public utilities.
2) The Land Regulations Act (1897). It allowed the government to offer a certificate of occupation and a lease of 99 years. This Act encouraged settlers to take up land left vacant by the Agikuyu due to drought and famine.
3) The East African Land Order in Council (1901). It defined crown land as all public land which was not private. The government could take up any land at will, sell it or lease it for use by settlers.
4) The Crown Land Ordinance (1902). It allowed the government to sell or lease crown land to Europeans at 2 rupees per 100 acres or rent at 15 rupees per 100 acres annually.
5) The Maasai Agreement (1904). It led to creation of the Ngong and Laikipia reserves while the settlers took up Maasai land for livestock farming. For example Lord Delamere in Nakuru.
6) The Elgin Pledge of 1906. The government through the British Secretary of State, Lord Elgin confirmed that the Highlands were reserved for settlers. This barred the Asian attempts to buy land in the highlands.
7) The second Maasai Agreement of 1911. The Maasai were pushed out of the fertile Laikipia reserve to pave way for more European settlement and large scale farming.
8) The Crown Land Ordinance (1915). This provided for land –registration scheme for settlers. It defined crown land as land occupied by and reserved for Africans who could be evicted any time. Farm sizes wee increased from 5,000 to 7,500 acres.
9) The Kenya Annexation Order in Council (1920). It announced that Africans were tenants of the crown even in the reserves.
10) The Land Commission (1924). It fixed boundaries of the reserves, which were later legalized in 1926.
11) The Native Trust Ordinance (1930). It stated that African reserves belonged t the Africans permanently.
12) The Carter Commission (1932). It fixed the boundaries of the white highlands, leading to population pressure in the African reserves. All Africans were removed from the highlands into the reserves.
13) The Kenya Highlands Order in Council (1939). It fixed boundaries of the white highlands and reserved them permanently and exclusively for Europeans.
Effects of the colonial land policies
THE DEVONSHIRE WHITE PAPER.
The Mandate of the League of Nations compelled Britain, just like any other colonial authority to institute reforms that would involve addressing African grievances. Governor Edward Northey who had given many concessions to the settlers was recalled to Britain in 1922.
Other reforms that were instituted were;
Factors that led to the issuing of the Devonshire white paper.
Terms of the Devonshire White Paper
Implications of the Devonshire white paper.
The issuance of the paper left the Settlers, Asians and Africans more dissatisfied than ever before as follows;
On the part of the settlers;
On the Asian part;
The government was inviting more settlers to check Indian immigration into Kenya by this time.
The Devonshire White paper was therefore viewed as the product of the struggle between the Asians and the Europeans. The paper made the Asians join their African comrades in the struggle for freedom, especially in the trade Union Movement.Settler dominance In Kenyan affairs continued upto 1963 despite recommendations done in the white paper.
Results of the Devonshire white paper
URBANIZATION
Towns that were already in existence before the advent of colonialism include Mombasa, Lamu and Malindi. Many other towns in the interior grew during the colonial period.
Factors which led to the establishment of urban centres in Kenya during the colonial period
Why Africans moved to urban areas in colonial Kenya.
Ways through which the colonial government controlled Africans migration to urban centers.
Positive effects of urbanization during the colonial period.
Negative effects of urbanization during the colonial period in Kenya
EDUCATION AND HEALTH
Education.
Formal education in colonial Kenya was provided by four groups;
~ The Christian Missionaries.
~ The Colonial government through local councils.
~ The Africans themselves.
~ Community organizations(Asians)
Major milestones in the development of education in Kenya during the colonial period.
Initially, the provision of education was the preserve of the missionaries. For example, the Church Missionary Society (CMS) pioneered by setting up a school at Rabai in 1844 and another in Mombasa in 1873.
Features of Missionary education
Objectives of Missionary education.
1) The WWI ex-soldiers experiences which convinced them of the advantage of higher education.
2) Increase in African nationalism that demanded for better education for Africans.
3) The need to produce better and more skilled manpower for the future independent Kenya.
4) Primary education had produced qualified children who needed higher education.
In 1911, the colonial government agreed to share the burden of providing education to Africans with the missionaries. In 1913, the first Government African School was started at Machakos. It became a centre for Technical and Teacher training.
In 1918, the education commission made the following far-reaching recommendations to the government in line with the Fraser Commission report of 1908 which had recommended a racially –segregated system of education;
In 1924, a commission came to Kenya (the Phelps –Stokes Commission) to look into the education situation. It recommended that Africans should receive Practical AgriculturalOriented Education suitable for rural areas. Other recommendations included;
Due to its recommendations, the Native Industrial Training Centre was built at Kabete in 1924 and Jeanes School, Kabete (1925) for offering technical and industrial education. Other schools were started later at Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach, Kitui, Kwale, Kabianga and Kapenguria.The 1924 Education Ordinance created an advisory committee on African education. The representation to the committee was missionaries, colonial officials and settlers. The same year, more schools were built with the assistance of the newly formed Local Native Councils. In 1931, another Education Ordinance helped in the establishment of Kakamega GAS In 1932, Kisii GAS in 1934, and Kabianga. Finance for African education was to come from the colonial government.From 1925, the missionaries began providing advanced level education to Africans. Initially secondary education was the preserve of the Europeans. In 1926, the Alliance of protestant missionaries set up Alliance High School. Catholics established Kabaa in 1927 and Mang’u School in Thika in 1930 for Africans. In 1938 and 1939, Maseno and St. Mary’s Yala were started as secondary schools.
Achievements of missionaries in provision of education.
operational.
Secondary schools for whites included Prince of Wales (Nairobi School), and Duke of York
(Lenana School) for European boys, Kenya Girls High School (Kenya High) and Limuru Girls for European Girls.Schools for Indians include the Asian Railway School (1904) and other schools developed by the government in Mombasa and Nairobi. Also community-based schools like Allidina Visram and the Arya Samaj Foundation.Hospital School became the first multi-racial school in 1953.In 1934, a District Education Board was created to plan education in districts, establish primaryschools and manage the schools.In 1949, the Beecher Committee was instituted to look into African education
From 1961, Asian and African pupils begun to join European schools.Provision of elementary education by Africans was pioneered by John Owalo of the Nomiya Luo Mission in 1910.
University Education.
Africans in Kenya got opportunity for university education at Makerere which was established in 1922 initially as a technical college and became an affiliate of the University of London on 1949. In 1954, the Royal Technical College, Nairobi began to offer higher education and became an affiliate of the university of London in 1959 to offer the first degree courses in 1961 when it became known as the royal college.
Community based education
This was done mainly by Asian families of Ismaili and Arya Samaj for the Indian traders in urban areas. Allidina Visram, A wealthy man, also established centres of higher education.
African Role in educational provision
Africans began their own schools for the following reasons;
The Nomiya Luo Mission built several schools in Nyanza between 1908 and 1910. Other schools were built in Gem-Luanda region between 1913 and 1918 and in central Kenya in 1923 in Kiambu. In 1934, the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Education Association founded more schools. In 1938, Githunguri Teacher Training College had been established under Mbiyu Koinange.
Health.
Developments in provision of health services in colonial Kenya
Initially, just like in the case of education, the Christian missionaries were concerned with provision of health services in colonial Kenya. The colonial government was majorly concerned with eradication of plague, malaria and sleeping disease which the Pioneer European settlers suffered from. Preventive medicine was later introduced to help stop various infections of killer diseases.The Church of Scotland Mission and the Church Missionary Society soon opened medical facilities in Kikuyu (1902), Kaimosi (1903), Kaloleni (1904) and Maseno (1905). Dr, Arthur, a missionary and pioneer doctor, put up the Thogoto Mission Hospital in 1907 and the facility exists prominently upto today as the Kikuyu Eye Unit Hospital and Kikuyu Rehabilitation Centre.
Objectives of the Health centres.
overcrowded areas lacking in sanitary facilities.
Africans began being trained in the provision of emergence health services during the first war. (The East African Medical Corps was formed). Between 1919 –1922, missionaries began to train Africans as Medical Dressers and Dispensers.
After the opening of the Alliance medical college in 1920 and the establishment of a Medical training centre under the Nurses and Midwives Ordinance many African school leavers trained as laboratory and pharmacy assistants.A Public Health Ordinance was passed in 1921 giving the Medical Department powers to institute measures for the control of malaria and prevent communicable diseases. As a follow up to the 1921 Ordinance, new health units were established in the four different African reserves.
The Rural Dispensary System was established to supplement the missionary efforts in provision of health care. Health centres were built in rural areas as part of the colonial government efforts to improve health facilities.After 1945, the Development and Research Authority (DARA) gave 47,000 sterling pounds for health care and improvement of health services. In 1949, the Bureau of Medical Research was set up as an agency of the East African High Commission.In 1950 King George IV hospital (today the Kenyatta National Hospital) was started as a hospital for Africans and in 1951, it started training female nurses.By 1962, there were over 100 rural health centres in the country.
Role of Africans in Health Provision
Africans were more pre-occupied with superstitions and over-reliance on traditional medicine which negated their participation in provision healthcare..The traditional medicinemen were dismissed by missionaries despite their wealthy knowledge on herbal Medicine. Today, many people rely on traditional herbalists to compliment healthcare provision.
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA (1919-1963)
Early Political Organizations In Kenya Upto 1939
African participation in the First World War contributed to rapid political developments in Kenya in the following ways;
Other factors for the rise of early political organizations included;
Kikuyu Association
This was the first political organization in Kenya. It was founded in 1920 by Loyalist Kikuyu chiefs, concerned about the continued grabbing of African land for European settlement.They also complained about the planned reduction of African wages after the replacement of the rupee with the shilling, the kipande system which they equated to slavery.The patron was Paramount Chief Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu and Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu was the president. The secretary was I.M.Ishmael. Other members were Josiah Njonjo, Philip Karanja, Mathew Njoroge and Waweru wa Mahui. The Association, being made of loyalist chiefs, was never aggressive in its demands. The members therefore failed to get any meaningful concessions from the government.Later, Harry Thuku and Abdalla Tairara joined the association together with other Christian converts who were labourers, colonial house servants and clerks in Nairobi and central Kenya.When Thuku tried to introduce radicalism in the Association, he was forced to decamp on 7th June 1921 and founded the Young Kikuyu Association.
The East African Association.
It began off as Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) in 1921 having been inspired by the Young Buganda Association in Uganda. Its founders included Harry Thuku, Abdalla Tairara, Mwalimu Hamisi and Muhamed Sheikh.Harry Thuku, the leading founder of this association was a mission educated elite who was working as a telephone operator in Nairobi. He became dissatisfied with the nonaggressiveness of the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by loyalist chiefs, in pressing the colonial government for Africans’ demands.YKA being very aggressive demanded;
~ The return of African land.
~ Better working conditions for Africans.
~ Reduction of taxes.
~ Withdrawal of Kipande system which had been introduced in 1920.
~ Increase in wages.
YKA incorporated other ethnic community members thus necessitating it to change the name to the East African Association in July 1921. The officials included Harry Thuku (Chairman) George Samuel Okoth, Abdalla Tairara, Kibwana Kambo, Jesse Kang’ethe, Z. K. Sentongo from Uganda, Maitei ole Mootian, Molanket ole Sempele from Tanzania, James Mwanthi and Muhamed Sheikh. EAA became a very popular association in the 1920s attracting huge crowd in its meetings.
Grievances of the East African Association
~ They were demanding for the removal of the status of Kenya as a colonial territory.
~ They were demanding for a common roll for all in the legislative council elections.
~ They wanted the return of the alienated land, back to African owners.
~ They were opposed to forced labour.
~ They wanted more educational facilities and opportunities for Africans.
~ They were demanding that all labour in urban areas be paid fair wages.
~ They wanted the compulsory selling of cattle be stopped.
~ Removal of Kipande System.
~ Protested European domination of government.
~ Wanted hut tax that was exclusively paid by Africans abolished.
Due to the radical approach that was adopted by Harry Thuku, the colonial Governor had him arrested on 15th March 1922 and detained at the Kingsway Police Station (now Nairobi Central Police Station). On 16th March 1922, a Kikuyu Woman, Muthoni Nyanjiru, challenged the African men to violence demanding the release of Thuku. More than 21 people including Muthoni Nyanjiru, were killed when the police opened fire on the over 1000 people who were surging forward.Harry Thuku was deported to Kisimayu. His colleagues Waiganjo and Mugekenji were banished to Lamu as EAA was banned.
Consequences of Harry Thuku’s arrest
The kikuyu central association.
When EAA was banned, its former officials Joseph Kang’ethe and Jesse Kariuki founded the Kikuyu central Association. It was formed in 1924 at Kahuhia, Fort Hall with Kang’ethe becoming the president and Henry Gichuru, secretary. Job Muchuchu (Treasurer), James Beauttah (secretary-general) and Jesse Kariuki (vice-president). All these were extremist politicians whose activities were closely monitored by the government.
Grievances of the Kikuyu Central Association.
~ They were demanding for the removal of the 1915 Crown Land Ordinance that made
Africans mere tenants and not real owners of their land.
~ They were demanding for African representation in the Legislative Council.
~ They were opposed to forced labour.
~ They wanted free primary education as opposed to the colonial education system.
~ Establishment of a secondary school, training facility for hospital workers and a school for girls.
~ Removal of kipande system.
~ They demanded that all colonial laws be translated into Gikuyu Language so that all members of the community could understand them.
~ They demanded for the appointment of a well-educated Paramount Chief elected by the majority of the Agikuyu.
~ Wanted hut tax abolished and other taxes reduced
~ They advocated for the growing of coffee and other cash crops by Africans.
~ To work towards the restoration of alienated African land.
~ To pressurize the colonial government to abolish racial segregation.
~ Respect of African culture & customs e.g. Circumcision/polygamy
~ Agitating release of political prisoners e.g. Harry Thuku.
By 1925, KCA had attracted membership from all large urban centres in Kenya and the Kikuyu squatters in the Rift Valley. They presented their demands to Governor Grigg when he visited Fort Hall in 1925.In 1927, KCA relocated its headquarters from Murang’a to Nairobi in order to link up with other Kenyan elites. In 1928, Jomo Kenyatta became its Secretary- General, taking over from James Beauttah who had been transferred from Nairobi in an act of sabotage by the government. Kenyatta started the Association newspaper, Muigwithania which was instrumental in reviving the cultural values of the Agikuyu.When the Hilton Young Commission was formed in 1927 to look into the question of the federation of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, KCA through Jomo Kenyatta presented the following demands to it;
~ Introduction of free primary education for Africans.
~ Provision of secondary and higher education for Africans.
~ Abolition of kipande system
~ Appointment of Africans to LEGCO
~ Release of Harry Thuku
~ Giving of Title Deeds to Africans as a guarantee against any further land alienation.
~ Rejection of the proposed East Africa Federation
KCA championed female circumcision arguing that it was a beautiful cultural practice which eradicated prostitution in the community. When the Church of Scotland Mission, African inland Mission and CMS expelled all sympathizers with the practice from their missions, KCA responded by leading the pack in the beginning of independent schools and churches.KCA sent Jomo Kenyatta, accompanied by Parmenas Mukiri, to present Agikuyu grievances in 1929 to the colonial office in London. It also helped kikuyu elders in preparing evidence to the Kenya Land Commission in 1931.Rivalry for power within the KCA between 1931 and 1938 nearly rocked the association.The Association was banned in 1940 alongside others.
Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association
It started as Young Kavirondo Association (YKA) in December 1921 at a Baraza held in Ludha, central Nyanza, by mission educated Luo and Luhyia men. The meeting was meant to discuss issues affecting African communities.The official of the Association were Jonathan Okwiri (chairman), Simon Nyende (Treasurer), Benjamin Owuor (secretary), Rueben Omulo, Ezekiel Apindi, George Samuel Okoth, Mathayo Otieno, Joel Omino and Jolmeo Okaka. The demands of the YKA included;
~ They were demanding for addressing of the problem of change of the status of Kenya from a protectorate to colonial territory.
~ Demanded for a government school to be built in central Nyanza.
~ Demanded for a self- government for nyanza province with a separate legislative council and an elected African president.
~ They were opposed to forced labour and labour camps.
~ An end to land alienation.
~ Creation of the position of paramount chief for central and southern Nyanza, just like Mumias was for northern Nyanza.
~ Removal of Kipande System.
~ Demanded to be given title deeds for their land.
~ Wanted hut tax removed.
~ The advocated for better wages.
The members presented their demands to the Nyanza PC in May 1922 and met governor Northey in Kisumu in July 1922 at Nyahera in Kisumu. The governor agreed to authorize the closing down of labour camps and reduce taxation. However, the revocation of the Crown Colony Status was out of question.In 1923, however, government, alarmed by the mobilization level of YKA in Nyanza, compromised its leadership and Jonathan Okwiri handed over chairmanship to Archdeacon Owen fearing the banning of the association the way EAA had been.Under Owen YKA changed its name to KTWA with its emphasis shifting from political grievances to social grievances focusing on killing rats, digging latrines and keeping compounds clean. It also adopted the use of written memoranda in expressing their grievances. All Nyanza chiefs became Vice-presidents of the association under its new constitution.In 1931, the association split up into Luo and Luyia Factions due to disagreements. The Abaluhyia faction formed the North Kavirondo Central Association that had close links with the KCA. It was formed with the objective of stopping any further land alienation for European use without compensation, especially after the 1930s Kakamega Gold rush.By 1944, many of the top leaders of the KTWA had been co-opted into the colonial administration with Okwiri becoming a chief. Benjamin Owuor, Nyende and Okwiri were made members of the LNC in central Nyanza. KWTA was therefore weakened and became extinct in 1944.
Ukamba Members Association
UMA was formed in 1938 by Samuel Muindi Mbingu (Chairman), Elijah Kavula (Vice-chairman), Isaac Mwalozi (secretary) and Simon Kioko (treasurer) as an association of the Akamba of the eastern part of Kenya.The leaders who founded this association were closely associated with East African Association of Harry Thuku. For example, James Mwanthi, Ali Kilonzi and Muhamed Sheikh.
Reasons for the formation of Ukamba Members Association
They wrote memorandum to the colonial government with the assistance of Asian lawyers. It mobilized people to fight for their rights through meetings and signing of petitions. They got support from KCA and the Asian representative to the Legco, Isher Das.The association used Muigwithania journal of KCA to advance their cause.
On 28th July 1938, UMA members including women and children demonstrated and marched to Nairobi with their cattle to seek audience with the governor over destocking and grazing policies. They staged a sit in Nairobi for 6 weeks led by Muindi Mbingu until the governor conceded to their demands at a meeting in Machakos. However, their leader, Muindi Mbingu was arrested in September 1938 and deported to Lamu until 1946.
The Association was banned at the beginning of World War II.
Problems that faced UMA in its operations
Coast Africa Association
The Association was formed in 1943 with Noah Mwana Sele as president, Muhamed bin Mwichande as vice president, E.W. Timothy as secretary General and H.G.Banks as honorary treasurer. Other officials were Muhamed bin Omar, Enoch Benjamin and H. Harrison.
Demands of Coast Africa Association.
Unlike other Associations CAA did not present their grievances in political meetings bur instead used written memoranda and also their newspaper, the Coast African Express whose editor wads Elkana Young. This explains why the association existed while others had been banned.
In 1955 however, the association began to disintegrate due to the following reasons;
It succeeded in achieving elevation of Shimo la Tewa school into a high school and a Legco position for the Mijikenda.
Taita hills Association
It was formed on 22nd June 1939, being modeled on the KCA and UMA styles.
Its objectives were;
~ To achieve equal political status with whites and Asians.
~ To help the Taita community to advance.
~ To protest the destocking policy. Most of the fertile land of the community had been occupied by European settlers who were growing coffee on it.
~ Oppose the plan to relocate the Wada Wida people from Taita hills to Samburu to create room for settlers.
~ They were opposed to the kipande system and forced labour. The Europeans forced the Wataita to work on coffee plantations and ferry the coffee over long distances for low wages.The pioneer founder of the Association was Daniel Mapinga, a young catechist, who began mobilizing the Wataita against oppressive measures used by the colonial government. Unfortunately he died in 1837.In 1939, Woresho Kolandi Mengo, Jimmy Mwambichi and Paul Chumbo took over his course and established THA with the help of KCA leadership.
Achievements
Problems experienced
Problems faced by early political organizations.
experiencing financial problems due to land alienation, taxation and poor working
conditions and therefore could not adequately contribute to the associations.
Features of the political associations formed in Kenya before 1939
Most of them were confined to one or two ethnic communities except EAA.
Achievements of early political parties.
EMERGENCE OF INDEPENDENT CHURCHES AND SCHOOLS MOVEMENT IN KENYA
This was an expression of African protest against European interference with traditional African economic and political organization.
Reasons why independent churches and schools emerged in Kenya
Characteristics of independent churches and schools.
The independent churches movement in Nyanza.
John Owalo is credited for leading in the establishment of independent churches in nyanza. He stared as a Roman Catholic, then joined the Church of Scotland mission (CSM) at Kikuyu before moving to the CMS first in Nairobi, then defected to Maseno.
The reason why Owalo suffered from denominational defection is because he was seeking for a mission church that accommodated African cultural values and where Africans could be given a say I terms of leadership and worship. In 1907, Owalo claimed to have received a direct call from God with instructions to begin his own church. Though CMS at Maseno dismissed him as a ‘lunatic’, the colonial authority (Nyanza
PC John Ainsworth) granted Owalo permission to start his own mission. In 1910, he founded the Nomiya Luo Church, which became the first independent church in Kenya. Owalo proclaimed himself as a prophet equating similar to Jesus.
Other independent churches in Nyanza included;
1) Dini ya Roho (Holy Spirit Church) founded among the Luhyia in 1927 as a breakaway from the Friends African Mission. The members claimed to speak in tongues and believed in baptism by the ‘holy spirit’,
2) Joroho church founded by Alfayo Odongo Mango in 1932 among the Luo. It was similar to Dini ya Roho.
3) The Christian Universal Evangelical Union founded in 1938 In Siaya by Ismael Noo, a school teacher linked to the Anglican Church at Maseno. He began off as one of the leaders of the revival movement at Maseno, which emphasized salvation by the blood of Jesus and public confession of sin. His movement insisted that men and women should have sexual intercourse since they were saved. His church attracted many women and soon he was accused of infidelity with peoples’ wives.He officially broke away from the Anglican Church at a convention at Nyabondo in Nyakach to establish the Christian Evangelical Union. The church is currently known as the Christian Evangelical Church, having changed its name in 1965.
The independent churches and schools movement in central Kenya
Due to its proximity to Nairobi, the seat of colonial administration, central Kenya experienced the presence of white settlers more than any other region in Kenya. The schools established by the so many missionary groups in the region only aimed at imparting basic literacy and numeracy skills to African converts. As the evangelized, the \missionary groups condemned many traditional African practices and values like polygamy, consumption of traditional brews and female circumcision. It is behind this backdrop that independent churches and schools emerged in central Kenya.
Kikuyu Independent schools
Kikuyu elders out of the desire for western education for their children, without necessarily being Europeanized, set up independent schools. In 1913, a Kikuyu elder, Mukunga wa Njehu, donated land at Gaithieko, Kiambu where the first independent school In central kenya was built.In 1925, another school had been built and registered at Githunguri.The independent Schools Movement emerged in the 1920s as a result of the expulsion from mission schools of the children of the supporters of female circumcision. The two bodies that emerged as a consequence were Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) and the Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association (KKEA)
The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association
The Body was closely associated with the Independent Pentecostal Church and was predominantly in Murang’a, Nyeri and Embu.
Following a showdown over female circumcision, the kikuyu elders got permission from the DC to build a prayer House around Gituamba on land donated by two elders, Kagere Gatundu and Gathai Gachohi of Thiru sub-location. Between 1929 and 1932, a school was set up at the church. This success inspired the emergence of similar churches and schools in Mariira, Kahiti and Gakarara in Kandara, Murang’a.In 1934, KISA was established to coordinate the efficient running of these schools with its leaders including Daudi Maina Kiragu, Musa Muriithi, Hezekiah Gachui, Peter Gathecha and Johana Njoroge.The Association had the responsibility of establishing more schools and maintaining them as well as mobilizing funds for teacher training programmes. Their activities got the support of the colonial authorities which even permitted establishment of more schools that must be registered at the DO’s office.By 1935, KISA had established 34 independent schools with an enrolment of 2,518 pupils.
Similar schools emerged in the Rift Valley among the kikuyu squatters.
Challenges encountered by KISA.
By 1952, at the time of its banning, KISA had 168 schools with an enrolment of 60,000 pupils in central Kenya and rift valley.
Kikuyu Karinga Educational Association
The association emerged out of a split at the Gituamba between the Murang’a group and the -Kiambu members who were radical and were more closely associated with KCA.
The term ‘Karinga’ means ‘pure’ implying unpolluted kikuyu customs and values. KKEA was opposed to all forms of cooperation with either the missionaries or the colonial authority.By 1940, it had established 12 schools in Kiambu and 11 in the rift valley. By 1952, it had established schools at Moshi and Arusha in Tanganyika. It established its own church in 1952(the African Orthodox Church of Kenya), relying on church ministers trained at Gituamba seminary. It was led by Arthur Gathuna and Philip KiandeThe Association was banned in 1952 after declaration of a State of Emergency.In 1939, the Kenya Teachers Training College was established at Githunguri, Kiambu, to train teachers for the independent schools. Mbiyu Koinange was the first principal. It was closed in 1952 alongside other independent schools.
Problems faced by independent churches and schools
POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND MOVEMENTS AFTER 1945.
Factors that hastened political development in Kenya after 1945.
decolonize helped the Kenyans in their course.
Characteristics of political parties formed after 1945.
Kenya African Study Union
When Eliud Mathu was nominated to the Legco on 10th October 1944, a number of well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi agreed to form Kenya African Union (KAU) with the following objectives;.
The interim officials were Harry Thuku (chairman), Francis Khamisi (Secretary) and Albert Owino (treasurer). Other officials were James Gichuru, John Kebaso, Simeon Mulandi, Harry ole Nangurai, S.0. Josiah, F.M. Ng’anga, Jimmy Jeremiah, J.D. Otiende and S.D. Jakay.Two weeks after its formation, the governor ordered its officials to change its name to the Kenya African Study Union as it was meant to help Mathu in studying African problems.In January 1945, James Gichuru became the president of KASU after Harry Thuku resigned, being unable to cope with radicalism in the union.
Under Gichuru, KASU published a newspaper – Sauti ya Mwafrika that concentrated on African grievances and the proposed East African Federation which they opposed.
The organization rejected proposals to give more powers to European members in the Executive council. They refused to accept a European dominated government of the East African Federation. Later in 1946 on KASU changed its name to KAU feeling that the former name was inappropriate.
Kenya African Union
Formed in February 1946, the main demands of KAU were;
~ They protested against inadequate African representation in the LEGCO.
~ They protested against the lack of Participation of Africans in the governance of
Kenya. They even demanded for Self-government for Africans.
~ They were against the continued existence of the Kipande System and forced labour.
~ They demanded improvement of the African working conditions with better wages equal to what was paid to other races.
~ They demanded an end to Land alienation and racial discrimination.
~ They demanded an end to Imposition of taxes.
~ They demanded compensation of ex-servicemen.
~ They were protesting against Lack of education opportunities for Africans.
The return to Kenya by Kenyatta in 1946 marked the beginning of mass nationalism. On 1st June 1947, Kenyatta became president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down for him. W.W.W. Awori was elected vice-president and Ambrose Ofafa and Muchohi Gikonyo were elected treasurer and secretary respectively.Kenyatta travelled widely in Kenya where he urged people to join KAU. After 1947 KAU began to face the problem of a standoff between Radicals like Fred Kubai and Paul Ngei who wanted to use force to acquire independence, and moderates like Kenyatta himself. Radicals who included Bildad Kaggia took over the Nairobi branch of KAU.When the national delegates’ conference was held in 1951, Jomo Kenyatta retained presidency, J.D. Otiende became secretary General, PAUL Ngei –assistant SG and Ole Nangurai –Treasurer. Between 1948 and 1950, KAU faced serious financial problems even failing to pay rent for its offices at the IBEA building.
Other problems that faced KAU
When the Mau Mau movement began, the Nairobi office of Kubai, J.M.Mungai and Kaggia worked closely with it.
KAU continued to expand its membership in Kenya with Ramogi Achieng’ Oneko opening a branch in Kisumu in 1951, Johana Adala and Boaz Muha opened a branch in Maragoli and Muinga Chokwe opened one in Mombasa.In 1952, KAU rallies were banned outside Nairobi after a political meeting in Nyeri, attended by the leader of Mau Mau, Dedan Kimathi, which attracted over 25,000 people thus startling the government.
When a state of emergency was declared in 1952, KAU leaders were arrested for being behind Mau Mau. Walter Odede became the acting president, Joseph Murumbi acting secretary and W.W.W.Awori-acting treasurer.The acting official presented a 24-point memoranda to Oliver Lyttelton , secretary of state for colonies when he came to kenya during the emergency period, demanding the release of the Kapenguria six (Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kung’u Karumba, Bildad Kaggia, Achieng’ Oneko and Fred Kubai)
Walter Odede, the acting president was late arrested on 9th march 1953 while Murumbi escaped to Bombay, India as KAU was banned on 8th June 1953.
Achievements if KAU
THE MAU-MAU REBELLION 1951 – 60
Mau-Mau is an abbreviation which stands for “Mzungu Arudi Ulaya, Mwafrika Apate Uhuru” (meaning let the white man go back to Europe and the Africans regain Independence).Sometimes the movement was referred to as the ‘Land and Freedom Army’ and the Anake-aForty.Sometime in the late 1940s the General Council of the banned Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) began to make preparations for a campaign of civil disobedience involving all of the Kikuyu in order to protest the land issue. The members of this initiative were bound together through oath. The rituals obliged the oath taker to fight and defend themselves from Europeans.In These oath rituals, There were rumors about cannibalism, ritual zoophilia with goats, sexual orgies, ritual places decorated with intestines and goat eyes, and that oaths included promises to kill, dismember and burn settlers. The oaths were a cultural symbol of the solidarity that bound Kikuyu men, women and children in loyalty together in their opposition to the colonial government. It also instilled courage and unity among people,Nonetheless, the British were scared by the oath, made taking the Mau Mau oath a capital offence. The British also screened Mau Mau suspects and forced them to take a ‘cleansing oath’, a strange instance of colonialism ‘gone native’.
CAUSES OF THE MAU-MAU REBELLION
Factory Massacre in September 1947.
The course of the uprising.
On May 1, 1949, six trade unions formed the East African Trades Union Congress (EATUC). The union leaders joined with the “Forty Group,” which was a roughly cohesive group mostly composed of African ex-servicemen conscripted in 1940 when attempts for a union members strike failed on May 16th 1950. In June 1951, the urban KAU radicals (Mutonyi, Isaac Gathanga, Bildad Kaggia, Paul Ngei and Fred Kubai) created a secret Central Committee (Muhimu) to coordinate the oath campaign throughout Nairobi and outside Nairobi. It also formed armed squads to enforce its policies, protect members from the police, and kill informers and
collaborators. Different leaders led the Land and Freedom Armies. Three of the dominant Active Wing leaders were Stanley Mathenge; Waruhiu Itote (known as General China), leader of Mount Kenya wing; and Dedan Kimathi, leader of Aberdare forest wing. Others were General Ndung’u Gicheru, General Mwariama and General Matenjagwo (one who never shaves). Other armies were in Nairobi, Kiambu, Fort Hall and Rift Valley. They were mostly equipped with spears, simis (short swords), kibokos (rhino hide whips) and pangas (machete). Some made their own gunswhile others employed armed robberies on police stations and isolated settler homes. African and Asian merchants funded the movement by paying protection fees.On 1st of October 1952, Mau Mau assassinated a Nairobi councillor, Tom Mbotela, who was a government loyalist. On 3 October, Mau Mau claimed their first European victim when they stabbed a woman to death near her home in Thika. A week later, on 9 October, Senior Chief Waruhiu, a strong supporter of the British presence in Kenya, had been shot to death in broad daylight in his car. His assassination gave Governor Baring the final impetus to declare a State of Emergency on 20 October 1952. Early the next morning, the British carried out a mass-arrest of 180 alleged Mau Mau leaders and subjected six of them to a trial (the Kapenguria Six); the real militants, such as Dedan Kimathi and Stanley Mathenge, fled to the forests.
While much of the senior leadership of the Nairobi Central Committee was arrested, Local rebel committees took uncoordinated decisions to strike attack settlers and there was an abrupt rise in the destruction of European property and attacks on African loyalists. On January 24, 1953, Mau Mau, possibly former servants, killed settlers Mr. and Mrs. Ruck, as well as their six-year-old son, on their farm with pangas. White settlers reacted by dismissing all of their Kikuyu servants because of the fear that they could be Mau Mau sympathizers. Naivasha Police Station was raided in March 1953.Over 1800 loyalist Kikuyu were killed. Operating from the safety of the forests, the Mau Mau mainly attacked isolated farms at night, but occasionally also households in suburbs of Nairobi.In May 1953, the Kikuyu Home Guard became an official part of the security forces. It became the significant part of the anti-Mau Mau effort. On March25–March 26, 1953, nearly 1000 rebels attacked the loyalist village of Lari, where about 170 non-combatants were hacked or burnt to death. Most of them were the wives and children of Kikuyu Home Guards serving elsewhere. In the weeks that followed, some suspected rebels were summarily executed by police and loyalist Home Guards.In June 1953 General Sir George Erskine arrived and took up the p ost of Director of Operations. A military draft brought in 20,000 troops who were used aggressively. The Kikuyu reserves were designated “Special Areas,” where anyone failing to halt when challenged could be shot. The colonial government created so-called pseudo-gangs composed of de-oathed and turned ex-Mau Mau and allied Africans, sometimes headed by white officers. They infiltrated Mau Mau ranks and made search and destroy missions. By September 1953, the British knew the leading personalities in Mau Mau, the capture of General China in January the following year provided a massive intelligence boost on the forest fighters.
On April 24, 1954, the Army launched “Operation Anvil” in Nairobi, the forest fighters’ source of supplies, money and recruits, and the city was put under military control. By the end of 1954 there were 77,000 Kikuyu in concentration camps mainly deported from Nairobi. In June 1954, a policy of compulsory villagization was started in the reserves to allow more effective control and surveillance of civilians and to better protect pro-government collaborators. When the program reached completion in October 1955, 1,077,500 Kikuyu had been concentrated into 854 “villages.”The last Mau Mau leader, Dedan Kimathi, was captured by Kikuyu Tribal Police on 21 October 1956 in Nyeri with 13 remaining guerrillas, and was subsequently hanged in early 1957. His capture marked the effective end of the Uprising, though some Mau Mau remained in the forests until 1963 and the Emergency remained in effect until January 1960.
Mau war by other communities
~ In April 1953, a Kamba Central Committee was formed by Kamba rebels who were all railway men and effectively controlled the railway workforce. They organized acts of sabotage against the railway lines during the emergency.
~ Rebel Maasai bands became active in Narok district before being crushed by soldiers and police who were tasked with preventing a further spread of the rebellion.
~ In Maragoli, Chief Mukudi of Bunyore was associated with the movement.
~ Other communities involved were the Kipsigis section of kalenjin, Luo etc.
Factors, which facilitated the MAU MAU uprising.
momentum for the rebellion course.
Problems that faced Mau Mau Rebellion
Results of the Mau Mau uprising
Swynnerton Plan
Refusing to give more land to the Kikuyu in the reserves, which could have been seen as a concession to Mau Mau, Baring turned instead in 1953 to Roger Swynnerton, Kenya’s assistant director of agriculture. The primary goal of the Swynnerton Plan was the creation of family holdings large enough to keep families self-sufficient in food and to enable them to practice alternate husbandry, which would generate a cash income.
Recommendations of the Swynnerton Plan of 1954
Kenya African National Union
During the emergency period, (From October 1952 to December 1959) African participation in the political process increased rapidly. The Kenya African National Union (KANU) was formed after the First Lancaster House Conference of January 1960 resolved that nationwide political parties be formed in Kenya as a step towards decolonization.On 27th march 1960, at a meeting at Kirigiti, Kiambu convened by ex-KAU strongmen, James Gichuru and Oginga Odinga, KAU merged with Kenya Independent Movement and the People’s Congress Party to form KANU. The colonial government declined to register KANU with Kenyatta as president since he was still in detention.In May 1960 James Gichuru took the presidency with Odinga as his deputy. Tom Mboya became the secretary General and Arthur Ochwada his assistant. Ronald Ngala and Daniel Moi were elected treasurer and assistant treasurer respectively in absentia as they were attending a commonwealth parliamentary Association meeting in London.In the party’s constitution, drafted by Mwai Kibaki and Tom Mboya, the following were the objectives;
imperialism and colonialism in the continent.
When Kenyata was released, he took over leadership of the party. During the independence elections in may 1963, KANU won 73 seats against KADU’s 31 and African Peoples’ Party’s 8 . Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister on 1st June 1963.
Achievements of KANU in the struggle for independence.
Challenges faced by KANU in the struggle for independence.
Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU)
KADU was formed in 1960 as an alliance of minority ethnic political groups to protect the rights /interests of the minority groups against possible domination of KANU /majority groups.Its senior leaders included Ronald Ngala (president), Masinde Muliro (Vice president), Daniel Arap Moi (chairman), Martin Shikuku (secretary General) and Justus ole Tipis (treasurer).KADU leaders advocated for a federal system while KANU group were advocating for a unitary system of government.When KANU refused to form government while Kenyatta was still in detention, KADU formed the first coalition government with the Europeans and Asians who belonged to Michael Blundell’s New Kenya Party after garnering 11 seats in the May 1961 elections.In 1962, KADU and KANU formed a coalition government while awaiting the 1963 elections.Following the defeat by KANU in the May 1963 elections, it became the major opposition party until 1964 when it was disbanded after persuasions from Jomo Kenyatta.
Roles played by the Kenya African Democratic Union in the struggle for independence.
Challenges faced by KADU
The party also emerged after the 1962 Lancaster House conference, founded by Paul Ngei, one of the radical members of KAU’s Nairobi branch.
Paul Ngei had similar fears just like the founders of KADU that the Akamba interests would not be catered for in the proposed government arrangement that favoured KANU as well as KADU.The party was formed in February 1962. After Kenya became a republic in 1964, APP decamped from the opposition to join KANU.
The trade-union movement.
The early trade Unions in Kenya were formed along racial lines though all form them aimed at addressing labour problems that faced workers. The first trade union in Kenya was the Indian Trade Union formed in 1914 in mombasa. Upto 1914, there existed no African trade union in Kenya because of the following reasons;
For this reason, in the 1920s, African political organizations doubled up as also defenders of workers welfare.In 1922, Asian workers in the railway department formed the Railway Artisans Union but its officials were sacked by the government causing it to wind up in 1923.in 1930s, a Trade Union Committee was formed in Mombasa by Masons and labourers with R.M. S hah as its president.In 1934, the Indian Trade Union became the Kenya Indian Labour Trade Union (KLTU ) whose membership was from other towns in Kenya.By 1935, the union began admitting members from other races necessitating it to change its name to Labour Trade Union of Kenya (LTUK). When it expanded its membership to the rest of East Africa in 1939, it became known as the Labour Trade Union of East Africa (LTUEA) on 14thJanuary 1947, over 15,000 striking African workers of Mombasa formed the African Workers Union (AWU). Muhamed Kibwana was elected president, Mwangi Macharia-secretary, Mbaruk Kenze-treasurer and Chege Kibachia –executive officer.
The Union’s demands included;
Kenya Federation of Labour
Following the enactment of the Trade Unions Ordinance in 1952, various small African trade unions (Kenya Local Government Workers’’ Union, Domestic and Hotel Workers’ Union and East AFRICAN Federation of Building and Construction) united to form the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU). Its officials included Mwichigi Karanja (president), Aggrey Mwinya(secretary general), S. Ondiege, Elikana Okusimba, Silas Okeya, David Jomo, S. Osore, James Wainaina and Dishon Sambili.
Among the demands of KFRTU were the following;
~ Increase in African wages.
~ Improvement of the living conditions and poor housing for its workers
~ Protest against the arrest and detention of union officials.
~ Protest against forceful evacuation of the Aembu, Ameru and Agikuyu from Nairobi In 1953.
~ Protest against increase in the price of tea and bread in 1955
~ Protest against the continuity of the state of emergency.
In 1953, Tom Mboya’s Kenya Local Government workers’ Union (KLGWU) joined KFRTU. The following were elected officials in the 1953 elections. David Njomo-prrsident, Stephen Obwaka- vice president, Tom Mboya- general secretary, G.W.Owuor-assistant SG, Daniel Ng’ethetreasurer and John Opiyo- ass treasurer.
In 1955, it changed its name to the Kenya Federation of Labour (KFL) representing 35,000 members.
Due to Tom Mboya’s efforts KFL was affiliated to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU).
Achievements of KFL.
Role of trade union movement in the struggle for independence in Kenya
Problems faced by trade unions during the colonial period
ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
Key women contributors in the struggle for independence..
role played by women in the struggle for independence.
Role of women in the Mau Mau movement.
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