History notes.
FORM FOUR HISTORY NOTES; ALL TOPICS
LESSON NOTES
WORLD WAR I (1914 – 1918)
INTRODUCTION
The World War I was the 1st total war involving almost all world countries directly or indirectly. This was also the 1st mechanized war in the world where as previously man has been wedging war using swords and guns in to hourses or foot.
It saw introduction of new weapons i.e machine, large battleships, submarines, fighter jets, poisonous gas long ranger field guns etc.
The war was caused by worsening foreign/international relations among European countries in and outside Europe especially the Balkan region, the far East and Africa.
Causes of World War I
Intensified tension between France, Britain and Germany leading to the triple entante two members ie. Britain and France agreed to and colonial disputes.
They agreed that France would recognize British occupation of Egypt and Britain in turn recognize French occupation of Morocco while disregarding Germans intest that.
Kaiser of Germany was dissatisfied with the situation and promised Sultan to fight for his independence.
A conference was called in Spain to try and Soike which ended with Germany loss as she failed to guard Italian support.
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THE COURSE OF THE WAR
The 1st World War bake cut in July 1914 with Austria Hungary declaring war on Serbia.
Serbia had an understanding alliance with Russia and so the Russian army began to mobilize. Germany then declared war on Russia and France as all major European countries soon joined the war.
NB The triple alliance consisting of Germany, Italy and Austria Hungary changed their name to Central powers. Bulgaria and Turkey also joined them while Italy left.
The triple entente was joined by Italy, Britain, France, Russiaa, Japan and later USA and came to be known as allies.
The war was fought in 3 countries Europe, Africa and Asia both on land and sea. In Europe war was fought in front western front and Eastern front.On Western front war was between Germany on one hand and Britain, France and Belgium in the other. On the Eastern front Germany, Austria Hungary and Turkey mainly fought against Russian forces.
WESTERN FRONT GERMANY
On the Western front Germans fighting British and French forces and later towards the end of the war American forces join the war. The war on the Western front was part of the Von Schlieffen plan. Alfred Ven Schlieffen the chief of German general staff had in 1905 planned for the war against France. His plan was to attack France through neutral Belgium. It was estimated that within the night German soldiers would capture Paris. Thereby end French resistance and force Britain to sign a separate peace treaty. This plan also succeeded and by September 1914 German forces were on the outcast of France but were forced back by British and French force.
FACTORS FOR FIALURE OF VON SCHLIEFFEN PLAN
Factors that contributed to military stalemate.
EASTERN FRONT
The war in Eastern front was between Russian on one hand and Germany and Austria Hungary on the other. Though the Russian army was large it was poorly led,, poorly trained and ill-equipped and so Russian causalities remained high from beginning of the war upto 1917.
Turkey entered the way on the side of the central powers in November 1914 and Bulgaria in September 1915.
In May 19 Italy joined the allies.the war on eastern front was influenced by events in Russia in 1917.
In March 1917, the revolution broke out in Russia (the Bolshevik revolution) which led to abduction os tsar Nicholas ii.
The new leaders did not wish to continue the war against Germany.
A peace treaty (the treaty of brest-litovisk). This treaty was signed with Germany on 3rd march 1918.
Germany therefor released more of here soldiers to the western front.
During the course of the war new weapons came into use e.g the machine gun, the Armoured the submarine, Aircrafts and poison gas.
THE WAR AT SEA
In 1914, Britain was still the undisputed naval power. She used her navy to blockade German ports, to ensure they didn’t get supply of food and raw materials.
Germany retalieted by using German boats (submarines) to sink all ships which were bound for British ports. By February 1915 Germany had declared the seas around the British ailes a war zone in which all enemy ships will be sunk with or without warning.
May 7th 1915, German submarines sunk a USA Liner (the Lusitania) off the coast of Treland leading to deaths of 1200 people. Who included many Americans.
This incident horrified the western world and brought USA to the brink of war with Germany. After this Germany agreed not to sink passenger.
In March 1916 however, Germany violated this agreement when she sunk the Sussex a Britain ship carring USA passengers. The Germans wanted to Britain out of the war by cutting off her suppliers of food and raw materials before the USA could act.
In 1917, the german high command declared un restricted submarine warfare on all ships trading with Britain.
Ships from neutral countries were no longer issued with a warning but were sunk on sight just like enemy ships.
Among neutral states whose ships sunk by german was the USA.
Reasons why the USA had remained neutral upto 1917.
REASONS FOR THE ALLIED SUCCESS
The superior allied sea power
WAR IN AFRICA
The war was fought in those regions where Germany had colonies neighbouring
those of allied power. Cameroon, Namibia, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanganyika as hostility in East Africa began when Britain attacked Dar el – salaam and Tanga. The German East Africa Commander general Paul von better-verbek moved to attack uganda railway from Kilimanjaro.
Britain received more troops from India, sourth Africa, Malawi and Zimbabe hence defeating Germans.
Belgium forces occupied Rwanda and Burundi while sourth Africa occupied Namibia bringing an end of the war in Africa.
Results of World War 1
PEACE TREATIES
In January 1919 states men at the 27 allied countries converged at Paris to determine fate of the defeated powers. The central powers were not party to the decision and were simply presented with draft resolutions for signature.
The negotiations were terminated by Britain, France, USA and Italy. Russia didn’t participate as she had already withdrawn from the war and signed a peace treaty with Germany.
The key personalities at the conference were
Lloyd George (P. M. Britain)
George clemencau (P.M. France)
Woodrow Wilson (P. M. USA)
Villorio Orlando (P. M Italy)
Five treaties were signed with each of the Central powers. They were
The treaty of German with Austria (1919)
Treaty of nevilly with Bulgaria (Nov 1919)
Treaty of Trianan with Hungary (June 1920)
Treaty of laussane with Turkey (july 1920)
Versesailles treaty with Germany (June 1919)
All the peace treaties were collectively known as the treaty of Versailles.
Terms and results of treaty of Versailles
NB The treaty of versaillies sometimes called the points Woodrow Wilson because te time forced upon German were not properly represented at the conference.
Four points of Woodrow Wilson
Earlier in 1918 president Wooden when hand outlined the 14 principles on which piece with Germany would be best.
THE LEAGUE OF NATION
It was formed in April 1991 as general association of nation to keep world peace.
Headquarter was in Geneva, Switzerland
Aims of League of Nations.
Organization of the league
Main bodies of
The assembly
Meeting of delegates from all members states where each country had one vote. The assembly meet annually at their headquarter Geneva.
The council.
Composed of five permanent and five non-permanent members permanent include
Britain
Italy
France
Japan
USA
N/B USA moved out since it didn’t join the league. The five non – permanent members were to be nominated by assembly.
The secretariat
It’s the administrative body of the league
It’s Headed by secretary general
1st secretary general was Sir Erick drumrmend of Britain who served between 1919 – 1923.
International court of justice
Its headquarter was in Hague, Holland (Netherlands)
It was established to deal with settlement of disputes between countries.
International labour organization
Maintaining good working condition of workers around the world
ACHIEVEMENTS
FAILURES
Reasons why the league failure
WORLD WAR II (1939 – 145)
The League of Nations was weak and cold not maintain World peace.
After twenty years the world war immersed in another World War II.
CAUSES OF THE WAR
Banito Mussulini – Italy
Adolf Hitler – Germany
This leaders favoured military campaign as a means of territorial expansion.
COURSE OF WORLD WAR II
War broke out in 1st Sept 1939 with Germany invention of Poland.
In March 1940 Russia invaded and occupied Finland to gain military and air bases for attack in Germany.
In May 1940, Germany started expansion west ward with invention of France.
The Germans occupied Paris within two months.
By October 1940 all other major Western European nations’ e.g Belgium, Netherlands had be overturn by the Germans. From October 1940, Hitler directed his millitary against Britain and the attack was called operation sea lion.
In June 1941, Hitler inciated the attack on the suvict union ealier known as the aggressionpart.
Attack in Russia was called Operation Barabarossa. In December 1941 USA entered the war on the side of the allies following the Japanese attack at his military base at pearl harbour in Hawai.
The attack in Russia failed
The Germans failed to capture muscow and wore defeats by Russians on the battle of sterling Grad in June 1943 and this marked the thorning point of World War II. By May 1944, Russian Red army had pushed Germany from territory to Berlin.
A combinied American, British and French force embarked on invention of Europe (operation overlead) to push back German to her territory.
In 1944, the allies were closing in for Germany from the West and soviet army from the East. Faced with impending defeat, Hitler committed suicide in April 30th 1946.
The new German leader Docnitz surrendered and signed documents on 7th May 1945. War continued in the East and the pacific between USA and Japanese forces.
War against Japan was concluded by USA boming the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Heroshima in August 1945 hence marking and of World War II.
RESULTS
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
This is where sovereign nations from different parts of the world interact politically, economically and socially.
This interaction may be in the following field’s trade, humanitarian assistance and diplomacy.
Nations relating may come together to form organizations so as to enhance their interaction such organization included
THE UNITED NATIONS ORGANIZATION (U.N.O)
Association of independent nations formed after 2nd World War in 1945.
Its membership is open to al nations irrespective of their political and ideological believers or differences in economic system or levels of development.
Formation of the U.N.O
It was created after the collapse of the lague of nations.
It created a UN Charter that was drawn up by representatives of 50 countries at the UN conference in international organization (UNCIO) held in San Francisco in U.S.A.
In the charter there were aims set forth as follows ‘we the people of the UN are determine”…………………… to save succeeding generations from discourage of war that had brought untold sorrow to mankind.
To reffrain faith in the fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person in the equal rights of man and women and of national large and small.
To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from trieties and other sources of international law can be maintained.
To promote social progress and better standards of life in large and for this ends to practice tolerance and live together in peace as one another as a good neighbours.
To unite war strength to maintain international peace and security.
To ensure the acceptance of principals and institutions of method that armed forces shall not be used; some in the common interest.
To employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advances of all peoples.
REASONS FOR THE FORMATION OF THE U.N.O
THE ORGANSIATION OF U.N.O
To achieve its objectives and purposes the U.N establishment principal organs as follows.
THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
All members represented
Member state may sent five representatives but has only one note.
Decisions require a 2/3 majority depending on impatience of the matter.
This where there are key positions of the functions.
it has the following functions.
NOTE the agenda of the assembly usually consist of more than 100 items.
THE SECURITY COUNCIL
Its responsibility is to maintain international peace and security. The member state stayed in New York so that they can meet in a meant’s notice if an emergency arises. There are eleven nations which sit on the council; five permanent members like
They serve for two years after which others are elected in their place.
For a decisions to be undertaken here must be 2/3rds agreement and must include all the permanent members who have a vote power.
This means that if one permanent member votes “No” no decisions can be reached.
The council is also authorized to investigate any dispute which might threaten international peace and security and make recommendations for a powerful settlement.
The council may also call members of the UN to apply economic and diplomatic sanctions against any state of the council found guilty of breach of peace or act of aggression or even military action be taken.
THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
This is base at Hague, Netherlands
It settles disputes over international borders
It also deals with other disputes like treatment of diplomatic and consular staff, fishing rights, nuclear tasts, territorial waters delimitation and human right violation.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
It has 54 members who serve for three years, 18 elected by general assembly each year to replace another 18 whose term has expired.
Its function
THE SECRETARIAT
It has 16,000 staff headed by the secretary – General.
It administers programmes and policies laid down by other UN. Organs.
It registers treatiets, carries on correspondence, and publishes reports and research work.
The secretary – general of the U.N.O is elected by the General Assembly for a five year term of office.
THE TRNSTEOSHIP COUNCIL
It’s in charge of territories which are governed by member states of the United Nations on behalf of the UN itself.
Activities of this specialized and agitated Agencies of the UN
The international labour organization (ILO).
Its work is to promote workers welfare.
There is an annual conference with over 120 member countries are represented with equal voting powers.
Its headquarters of ILO is in Geneva, Switzerland.
The food and Agriculture organization (FAO).
It increase production of food by using improved seeds and fertilisers and new types of plants.
To improve marketing and distribulation of all food and agricultural products.
Promote rural development and improve living conditions of rural population.
It helps to control pests such as locust and combat epidermis of animal diseases such as rinderpest
At the request of member governments, FAO sends agronomists and technologists to give instructions on such matters as the control of soil erosion, afforestation and irrigation.
The headquarters of FAO is in Rome, Italy.
United Nations educational scientific and cultural organization (UNESCO).
Its function is to fight illiteracy.
It was formed in 1946
It also publishes books and other research journals.
It’s also concerned with the presevation of historic monuments, Artificial and valuable cultures.
It promotes dissemination of information as social sciences, instruments of peace and justice.
Its headquarters is Paris in France.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION
It was set up in 1`948 with its headquarters at Geneva.
Its main purpose is to combat diseases on a worldwide scale
THE WORLD BANK
Its also known as international bank for reconstruction and development.
It was created in 1945 with Washington DC as the headquarters.
Its function is to give loans to nations for development or job balance of payments support.
The bank is headed by a Board of Governors who comes from member states who meet once in year to assess and guide the bank’s activities.
Those with the greatest influence are the U.S.A, Britain, France, Germany, Japan and India.
THE INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND (IMF)
It works closely with the World Bank
Its aim is to help stabilize the different currencies of the world.
It also promotes international trade.
It also raises funds from subscriptions from member states.
UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S EMERGENCY FUND. (UNICEF).
It provides the basic needs for the children of the world e.g medicine, vaccination and milk for under nourished.
UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMMES (UNEP).
Headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya
Oversias the implementation of progrmaes aimed at managing and conserving the environment
INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO)
It’s concerned with maintaining weather equipment for the North Atlantic region to guide pilots through fog and darkness.
Other agencies are universal postal union (UPU) World meteorological organization (WMO), international telecommunication union (ITU) United Nation High commissioner for refugees (UNHCPR).
Financing of the UNO
This is provided by member states
The member states are assessed according to their ability and they pay a percentage of the total budget according to that assessment.
PERFROMANCE OF THE UN
It has helped reduce tension and conflicts between member states.
It has solved disputes between Iran and secret union (1946), India and Pakistan (1949) and Eritria and Ethiopia (2002) and Nigeria and Cameroon (2004).
It helped initiate development programmes in developing countires e.g the UNDP has given assistance amounting to 95 million to 93 developing countries.
CHALLENGES FACING U.N.O
Example: – Communist China and Russia have always been susipicious of other capitalist members and vice versa.
Exaples i) Arab – Israel conflicts
All this end up stretching the UN beyond its capability and resources.
iii) Non – Aligned movement(NAM).
The interests of this organization are sometimes not in accord with those of UNO.
Example: – American and British invasion of Iraq in 2003 without UNO approval.
THE COMMON WEALTH
It is a voluntary association of independent states which were formerly part of the British Empire e.g colonies or domains. Some of this countries are Canada, Australia and New Zealand and republic like Kenya, India, Lesotho and Malawi.
ORIGIN OF THE COMMONWEALTH
Its origin is traced to what used to be the British Empire.
It was launched formerly but it doesn’t have a constitution.
It began with the publication of the Durham report in 1839.
However it reached another stage I 1931 with the statute of West Minister.
This can be considered as a referral constitution landmark whose contribution helped to shape the association.
Details of this association were worked out in 1926.
In this year imperial conference, a committee chaired by Lord Balfour, the Prime Minister of Canada, prepared a report and incorporated it the statute of West Minister of 1931.
The Statute stated that no act of the British parliament could be law of any dominion unless the dominion parliament itself agreed to pass it.
It also stated that any law relating to succession to the throne could require the consent not only of the British government but oe each Dominion parliament.
The statute defined the UK and the dominion of Canada, New Zealand and Australia as automats communities with the British Empire.
All were to be equal in status and not subordinate to one another.
They were all united by a common factor, their alliegence to the crown.
This was the first time in History that equality was established among independence states.
This was the beginning of what was to be called common wealth.
MEMBERSHIP OF THE COMMON WEALTH
Modern commonwealth started in 1947 after India gained its independence.
Each commonwealth state chooses on it free will to become a member of commonwealth.
So when India and Pakistan achieved Independence they opted to become members of the commonwealth.
Membership then increased as Africa states became independence beginning with Ghana in 1957.
Most African states joined the association in 1960’s and 1970’s.
Modern commonwealth has also allowed membership from independent non – British colonies e.g Mozambique, Cameroon and Togo. There are 53 countries in commonwealth…
COMMON FEATURES OF THE MEMBERS.
All commonwealth members accept the British queen as their head.
They have the same education system with similar structure.
They share a common heritage of public institution acquired from Britain.
These put the principles of democracy into practice. Such institution is a parliamentary government, an independent judiciary and a civil service free from politics.
Example i) South Africa in 1961 because of Apartheid policy.
PRINCIPLES AND IDEAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH
Head of commonwealth government held a conference in Singapore in 1971.
Members agreed that the organization should have laid down ideals and principles.
They include:-
N/B in 1979 the commonwealth head met in Lusaka Zambia.
They adopted a declaration on racism and racial prejudice.
This was a fellow up step of the declaration of 1971.
At Lusaka conference the Head of States proclaimed their desire to work jointly to put an end to all forms of discrimination.
STRUCTURE OF THE COMMONWEALTH
THE COMMONWEALTH SECRETARIAT
The secretariat was established in 1965 all Ghana’s request. Its functions are
NB: Expenses of the secretariat are paid for by contribution made by independent government, contributions are based on population and income of the individual member states.
COMMONWEALTH AGENCIES
There are various Agencies that help in focusing particular work of the commonwealth.
These include
CONSULTATION WITHIN THE COMMONWEALTH
Commonwealth states hold various conferences which are seen as important forums for consultations.
The president or prime ministers had meetings every two years.
In this meeting they discuss international economy and politics and whatever decisions they make are made by consensus, not voting.
Meetings between ministers cover foreign affairs, defense, supply and finance ministers responsible for this ministry meet yearly.
Minister for Health, Edcuation and will meet every after three years.
Commonwealth states are represented by High commissioners in the capitals of other member states.
The main duty of this commissioner is to maintain close co-operation between member states.
They are of equal status to ambassadors and are important elements in the interstate consultation.
FUNCTIONS OF THE COMMONWEALTH
Examples i) Condemned apartheid in South Africa
CHALLENGES FACING THE COMMON WEALTH
However it sometimes ignored by some of the member states.
THE COLD WAR
This term cold war refers the rivalry which emerged between the West (USA and his allies) and the former East block (USSR) and her allies) after the end of World War II.
It was a war of propaganda and was characterized by economic hostilities towards each other and military and financial to their allies.
FACTORS THAT LED TO DEVELOPMENT OF COLD WAR
Ideological Differences
The USA and her capitalist allies did not trust the secret union even when both were fighting against Germany.
The USSR was also cautious when dealing with her Western allies.
The main reasons for this mistrust was ideological difference between the capitalist advocated for free enterprise in economic development and freedom of the individual, the communist east wanted means of production to be commonly owned under strictly command of the state.
The Disagreements over Disermament between USSR and the USA
It was the wish of the USA that manufacture of deadly weapons is checked.
The horrors of the Atomic bomb in Japan were still fresh in the minds of the UN delegates.
So this plan was accepted by the UN’s atomic Energy commission.
The plan suggested international ownerships and unlimited international inspection of Atomic energy materials and production.
The USA agreed to destroy the stockpiles of atomic bombs after the plan was affected.
The Soviet Union viewed this issue as propanganda of the worst kind especially because she had not yet manufactured any atomic bombs.
She thus wanted the Atomic weapons destroyed before the plan on inspection was affected.
The two powers could not agree on the arms issues and as a result the United States and the Soviet Union to increase their stock pile of Atomic bombs.
The Iron Curtain Policy Adopted By the USSR
The USSR already occupied part of Eastern Europe before the end of the Second World War like Romanice, Balgeria, Czechoslouakia, Hangary, East Germany and Poland.
Soviet power over these nations was so thorough that it prompted Winston Churchill, the then prime minister of Britain, to say that an iron curtain has been dropped by Soviet Union to seal Eastern Europe from the West. This new tight and artificial division of Europe made International relation very poor.
European Conflicts In the Late 1940’s
These conflicts increased the lension between the two sides, the civil war in Greece where USA and Britain supported one side and USSR the other.
The UN Domination by Western Power
The UN was one of the battlegrounds of the cold war.
Proposals at the UN would never get anywhere because of the Russian Veto.
When USA suggested that Veto powers be limited, USSR maintained that the power limited USSR maintained that the veto was only way of assorting herself in the UN which was mostly pro-USA.
The Formation of NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO)
NATO was a military alliance of USA and most states of Western Europe formed in 1949.
The organization committed the USA to the defense of Western Europe in return those countries would support the U.S.A.
This threatened USSR and her satellites states.
They viewed it as a capitalist scheme set to destroy the communist Russia.
So the USSR and her allies also set to check the capitalist activities thus the cold war was on.
The Marshall Plan of 1949 And Truman Doctrine.
The Marshall plan of 1949 and Truman Doctrine was a declaration by the USA was also factors which led to the intensification of the cold war.
THE COURSE OF THE WAR
COLD WAR IN EUROPE
War was caused mainly by ideological differences and ambitions of the USA and the Soviet Union in Europe.
In 1946 the Soviet Union contributed to the overthrow of the Greek post war government.
This spreading soviet influence prompted the US president Truman to introduce the famous Harry Truman doctrine in March 1947.
This doctrine state that USA would support free people resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressure.
This declaration is widely considered as the official eruption the cold war.
It led to American intervention in Greece, Turkey and other countries where the Soviet Union was trying to spread communism.
To counter further spread of communism, the USA felt there improved economic contions were necessary.
Europe needed financial and material aid for reconstruction.
To achieve this aim the USA in 1947 put forward the European recovery programme (ERP) which later known as the Marshall plan.
It was named after it initiates, the American secretary of state General marshall.
The Soviet Union hated the Marshall plan and discouraged its satellites states from benefiting from it.
It closed all the land to Berlin, a city in East – Germany which had participated between the allied countries and the Soviet Union.
The allies then airlifted material AID to West Berlin from 1948 to 1949.
In addition they blocked the passage of good meant to Eastern Berlin, in the soviet Zone.
After the war German was divided into two states.
The allied power took control of the West which they named West Germany and formed an Anti-service. Military organization called the North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO) in 1949.
The Soviet Union controlled East Germany.
In response to the Marshall Aid plan, the formation of the council for mutual economic assistance (COMECON was formed by the soviet – union.
Russia then poured it money in its satellites to assist them in attaining the production targets set by the soviet government.
The Soviet Union answer to NATO was the formation of the war saw pact in 1955.
The pact brought all the soviet satellites into a military union.
From 1950s, Europe remained a divided house and a major battle field of the cold war.
The dominance of the two major superpowers continued to be a towering reality.
They almost went to actual war when the Soviet Union built a wall which physically divided Berlin into soviet controlled east and allied controlled West.
COLD WAR IN VIETANAM (ASIA)
In Indo-China USA and USSR clashed over Vietnam which had been colonized by the French but was taken over by the Japenese after World War II.
After the war the French tried to recolonize Vietnam but failed.
USA and USSR got involved in vietnma each supporting different Natioanalist leaders.
USSR supported HOCHI MINH.
USA supported BAO DAI.
Led Vietnam to be divided into two parts.
Soviet Union supported the North and the United States supported south.
Division led to the Vietnamese war in which the two powers were used.
During the war the viet cong, the communist guerillas continued to operate in South with the hope of establishing a communist government there USA wished to block the spread of communism to the sketch and as such gave direct military aid in the form of troops, military aircrafts and warships to the South.
Even with these effects the Americans were defeated by the communist and forced to withdraw.
This defeat hastened the American cold war propaganda more than ever.
Cold War in Cumba Central America
In 1959, Fidel Castro took over power in Cuba with the support of the soviet union
The US Tried unsuccessfully to remove him.
The Soviet Union gave Cuba weapons and hoped to use the Island nation as a military launching base against USA in the event of war.
The US was concerned and field threaten because some of the weapons the USSR gave Cuba included dangerous missiles which were within US range in October, 1962, President John Kennedy declared that US would stop the USSR military build up in Cuba by imposing a strict blockade on all communist military ships approaching Cuba.
It asserted that the only condition for peace was the removal of the missile from Cuba.
Khrushcher, the soviet leader was compelled to accept Kennedy’s demands with the removal of the soviet missiles from Cuba, a dangerous crisis war ended
Cold War in Angola
The Soviet Union and Cuba supported the movement for popular de libertaca de Angola (MPLA) of Agostine Neto in the war of independence against the portueguese.
A civil was begun and the USA who were against the spread of the soviet influence joined the crisis.
United National de independencies total de Angola (UNITA) of Jonas Savimbi.
The USA also encouraged South Africans direct military intervention.
This came to be known as Anglo crisis which saw Angola torn by civil war right through into the 1990s.
THE COLLAPSE OF COLD WAR
The cold war increased hostility between the two super powers over political and economic dominance in the world.
However, the superpowers made attempts to co-exist without taking advantages of one another.
They adopted the de’tente policy e.g they made several attempts to improve relation between them.
This attempts led to several agreement on disarmaments.
Fore example(i) The partial test Ban treaty of 1963
iii) Strategic arm limitation talks (SALT )1972
Recently Western domiciles have been established in formerly communist countries such as Poland, East Germany and Russia.
The soviett Union played a major role in weakening communism especially after Gorbachev adopted a more liberal policy.
He also sought Aids from the West to improve the soviet ailing economy.
The two factors and other internal problems made several states of the union use interest in the communism ideology.
They thus sought to leave the union and form their own independent
Last stage of the cold war came when Iraq invaded the tiny rich country Kuwait. Saddam Hussein claimed that Kuwait was iraq 19th century since.
Invasion led to the gulf was which the Americans under the mandate of the United Nations called allied force to liberate Kuwait.
USA was successful this time.
The allied forces were able to face the Iraqs out of Kuwait and install Thed esposed rulers.
This success was a clear indication of weakening soviet power in 1991 the Warsaw past was cancelled.
This was a step further towards the end of the cold war.
The period that followed the gulf war saw the disintergration of the osoviet union into many independence republics.
By the end of 1991 several states left the union and formed their own republic. Others led by colonialist Russia under President Boris Yelsin joined to form the confederation of independence states (CIS). Others like Georgia plunged into civil war while groups of people in other states called for secession.
This was the final straw that broke the camels basic and ended the cold war.
IMPACTS OF THE COLD WAR
Examples i) The Hungarian revolution 1956
The Non-Aligned Movement (Nam)
It is the kind of neutralism,It is the policy of not aligning with any power block
Non alignment expresses freedom of decision and choice in deciding each international issue on it merit.
It is therefore a free and independence policy
The movement was concerned with concept such as neutralism and neutrality
Neutralism refers to foreign policy of states in time of peace.
Neutrality refers to a term in International law referring to the rule that states are supposed to follow during a legal state of war in which they are out participants.
Formation of NAM
After World War II former Europeans colonies in Africa and Asia began to attain independence.
Many Nations feared that the super powers were threatening their sovereignty.
They found it necessary to form an association which would unite them against nomination of either US or the Soviet Union.
This resulted in the formation of NAM in 1947.
The movement grew steadily from 1947 when it had a few founding members among them India and Yugoslavia.
The leaders of these two countries Jawa Harlar Nehm and Marshal Tito played a key role in shaping NAM.
The bandung conference was held in Indonesia in 1955. It was the first NAM meeting and had 29 participants from Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
These included heads of five states from China, India, Egypt, Indonesia and Yugoslavia.
The main issue during this conference was how they were going to tackle international issues such as cold war which were threating the new independence states.
The conference thus defined NAM as spelt its objectives.
The Objective of Nam
PERFORMANCE OF NAM
The NAM movement held several conferences, including one which took place in Belgrade Yugoslavia in 1964. NAM meetings are held four years and are attended by Heads of States of member countries.
The NAM countries have strengthened their influence in World affairs by increasing their voting power in the Untied Nations General assembly, after independence NAM has been regarded as an important diplomatic weapon for influencing the superpowers and securing maximum assistance from the developed World.
It has enable members countries to formulate policies freely and according to their needs and situations.
CHALLENGES FACING NAM
CO-OPERATION IN AFRICA
It refers to the way African countries relate to each other
This relation is manifested in the existence of organizations such as OAU and other regional organizations.
The earliest organization which was aimed at African Unity was referred to as PAN AFRICANISM.
PAN-AFRICANISM
Formation:-
The term pan Africanism is derived from two words Pan-which mean act Africanism referring to African Origin.
Pan – Africanism is defined as a belief in the uniqueness and spiritual unity of black people.
It also acknowledged their right to self alternation in Africa.
Pan-Africanism calls for treatment of all Africans with dignity as equals in all parts of the world movement is thus seen as the manifestation of African process just universal discrimination of the Black people.
Origin of Pan-Africanism is not traced in Africa. It has its origin in New World in the 19th Century.
Atlantic slave trade led to dispersal of black people over f American in the carribean.
Slave suffered untold suffering and misery. This made them to be conscious their occur and origin in Africa.
Mistreatment, discrimination and humiliation the black people underwent convined them that they could find true friendship, understanding and motherhood at home in Africa.
However Africa had been colonized by European powers at the start of the century.
Before black people in America and West Indies joined with the Africans pan Africanist movement as a vehicle to fight for their social, African and economic right.
REASONS FOR BEGINNING OF PAN AFRICANISM.
Realisation by Africans that they have close cultural factor as they have suffered similar experiences such as slavery and colonialism and the world they constitute the down trodden lot.
Desire by Africans to pull together for mutual support.
AIMS OF AN-AFRICANISM
DEVELOPMENT OF PAN-AFRICANSM
Many Negroes passively accepted their position as the bottom dogs and as a race created to serve others in a world dominated by the whites. They were homeless by slave trade and slavery. They were viewed as inferior people because of their colour.
There were many developments mainly economic development which led to introduction of machines.
These machines changed the mode of production whereby human labour from slaves was replaced by machines rendered slaves to be redundant and thus a burden to their owners who freed them.
British began anti-slave trade and anti-slavery campaigns in 1807 and 1833.
There was also American civil war which was caused by the issue of slave trade and slavery.
Negroes received western education as a new spirit among the blackmen in the new world grew.
They travelled widely and wrote about their plight in their own newspapers like BOOKER T. WASHINGTON, DR. W.E.B DUBOIS, MARCUS GARVERY, and GEORGE PADMORE.
The earliest pan- Africanists from Africa included J.E.K. Aggrey from gold coast (Ghana) and wilmost blyden from Liberia.
D.R W.E.B DU BOIS was born in USA in 1868. He was one of the founders of the national association for the advancement of coloured peoples (NAACP), he was a scholar who authored several works in politics and novels and edited the association’s journal.
This association championed the struggle for Negroes civil rights in America.
THE PAN AFRICAN CONGRESSES
First pan Africanist congress, in London, 1900.
Was held in London in 1900
It was sponsored by a Trinidad lawyer called Henry Sylvester Williams. Was at the conference that Dr. E. B Dubois was first introduced to Africanism.
Made his famous statement “The problem of the 20th Century is the problem colourline”
Obejctives of the First Pan African Congress`
Bring people of African origin in all parts of the world together and thereby as a forum through which they could protest against European congression against blacsk.
Appeal to an end to European colonization and exploriation of Africa. For ways of establishing better relations between the causican and African races.
Initiate a movement for securing to all Africans in and outside Africa fall rights and to promote their economic rights.
Appeal to missionaries and philontrhopist in Britain to protect African against aggression by the colonizers.
To address the living standards and conditions of Africans (blacks) in different parts of the world and more so black in South Africa and Condem in human treatment.
This congress, the quotation of South Africa and Rhodesia was discussed and congress condemned mistreatment of blacks in this countries. Set up upon Africanist association and journal.
However, this conference laid the foundation for future saidarity meetings and sowed the seed of togetherness of the black people.
Second Pan-Africanst Congress (Paris, 1919)
It was convened under the leadership of Dr. W.E.B de Bois.
It was held when the peace conference ending the World War I was taking race in Parts in 1919.
It Amied at presenting the grievances of people of African origin before the delegates to the peace conference.
This congress made some recommendations
Third Pan Africanist Congress (Longon, Paris And Bruses, 1921)
This congress was held in three sessions, London, Brassser and Paris.
London session was attended by 41 Africans, 35 Americans coloureds, West Indians and 24 Africans who were living in Europe at that time.
It was also under the pationage of Dubois.
Main demand was establishment of political organizations among suprressed black peoples.
The congress emphasized international and interracial harmony and democracy.
The Fourth Pan- Africna Congress (London And Lisbon, 1923)
It was head in London and Lisbon.
Reiterated the earlier resolutions and also demanded that black people treated like human beings.
Fifthe Pan – African Congress (New York 1927)
Boi was once again the main figure in the congress in issue discussed was the attitude of the communist towards pan-African’s communist tried to discredit Da Bois and Marcus Garvey after they led to central both men.
After the fifth Pan African congress, Pan – Africanism ceased for almost twenty years when a new star on Pan Africanism came into the scene name was John Padniore.
However, up to 1945, the movement was not active on the African continent.
The Sixth Pan-African Congress, Manchester, 1945
In 1944, 13 organisations representing students welfare and political grouping formed the pan-african federation among them, George padmore, C.L.R. Wallace Johnson and jomo Kenyatta.
The participants included du bois(west indies), jomo Kenyatta(Kenya), kwame Nkrumah(Ghana), George padmore(Trinidad), peter Abrahams(south Africa), otto mackonnel from west africa and magnus Williams(Nigeria) represented DR. nnamdi azikiwe.
Reasons Why the Movemetnt Had Not Established Itself in the African Continet Before 1945
Example i) Ethiopia was trying to consolidate the Nation after the death of Menelic II.
PAN – AFRICANSISM AFTER 1945
Pan Africanism activities increased in Africa after 1945. The activities increased because of:
iii) The support from trade unions and Nationalistic movements formed in Africa
NOTE. IN 1958, a conference was held in Accra Ghana.
In 1960, a second conference was held in Addis Ababa Ethiopia here differences emerged among African leaders.
Some former French colonies formed the Brazzaville group and were less critical of their colonial masters. They wanted continued political links with them.
Anglo-phone countries formed the Casablanca group which adopted a militant attitude towards all the Western powers.
By 1963, these differences had reduced
Another conference was held in Addis Ababa in 1963. it was attended by 32 African states.
At this conference OAU was born. It was to reflect the ideals and aspiration of Pan – Africanismm.
PERFROMANCE OF PAN AFRICANISM
CHALLENGES FACED BY PAN-AFRICAN MOVEMENT
THE ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY AND FORMATION
Organization owes its origin to Pan- Africansim movement and was born in May 1963, 30 out of 32 independent African states met in Adis Ababa Ethiopia.
Among the 32 indpendant African states which were at present were Morroco and Togo,
It was during this meeting that the leaders agreed to form a continous body among the leading stesmann present were
Julius Nyerere (Tanzania)
Kwameh Nkrumah (Ghana)
Haile selassie (Ethiopia)
Ghana and Uganda supported a union government African.
However, the other African staes were prepared to accept association of states.
African leaders drew up a charter on 25th May 1963 and signed the OAU charter.
African states that had not yet gained independence sense observers they included Kenya which becomes a member in 1964.
Formation of OAU saw the dissolution of all the previous groupings Brazzaville and casoblanca groups.
AIMS OF OAU
OAU CHARTER
This charter was drawn in 1963 and signed by 30 heads of states.
It contained 33 Articles which outlined the right and duties of the organization
Article One: Established the heads of states assembly
Article two: Outlined the aims and purpose of the organization.
Article three: Points out the purposes stated in Article two, that is to adhere to
Sovereignty equality Non – interference and condemnation of political
Assassinations.
Article Four: Outlined OAU membership i.e each sovereign African states was entitled
to membership.
Article five: Gave all members states equal right and opportunities.
Article Six: Committed all members’ states to pledge and observe the principles of the organization.
Article Seven: Established four principles organization which are:-
Article 8 – 11: Spelt the function of the assembly of heads of states and governments as supreme organs.
Article 12 – 15: Created the council of ministers and spelt out its functions
Article 16 0 18: Created the general secretariat headed by the secretariat general.
Article 19: Established the commission of meditation, conciliation and arbitration of the organization.
Article 20 – 22: Set out specialized commission in the areas of co-operation as outlined in Article number 2(two).
Article 23: Made the OAU budget as drawn by the secretary general. It was approved by the council of minister. Member states paid contribution according to assessment scale. No member state was allowed to pay 20% of the total budget.
Article 24 – 25: Dealt with the preparation of the charter text in English, French and other African languages. These are rectified with a two third majority.
Article 26: Provided for rectification and registration with the UNO
Article 27: Stipulated that the interpretation of the charter be by the third majority of the assembly.
Article 28: Spelt out the procedure of the admission with the OAU by independent African states which is decided by a simple majority of the assembly.
Article 29: Specified the working language of the organization as French, English and if possible any other Africa language.
Article 30: Authorized the secretary General to receive gifts and donations on behalf of the organization provided that this was approval by the council of ministers.
Article 31: Provided for the privileges and immunities of the secretariat staff waiting for member states as decided by the council of ministers.
Article 32: Stipulated the conditions for leaving the organization. If a member state wished to leave the organization was to give a one year notice formerly and it then withdrew the following year.
Article 33: Established the amendment of the charter on a written request by a member state after a year notice.
THE STRUCTURE OF O.A.U
The effects it objectives and purposes the OAU’s charter provided for the establishment of various organs. These organs were:-
The assembly of Heads of states and Government
It was the supreme organ of O.A.U
Met once a year although it could hold extra ordinary sessions to discuss the matters and issues affecting the continent
Members of the assembly had equal voting rights, thus each state had vote.
Elected a chairman yearly from among the head of states and government and the head of states and government conference used to hold on relational basis various countries.
Head of state of the hosting state automatically became chairman of it.
However this was changed in 1982 over the issue of whether Colonel Muamar Gadafi of Libya was eleigible to head OAU.
Result was many African leaders boycotted the meeting which aborted due to lack of quorum.
Impact was president Moi of Kenya was chairman for two terms 1983.
1983 it was agreed that all OAU summit meeting would be held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
OAU COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
It Consisted of all foreign ministers of OAU member states.
Performed the following functions:
The council met twice yearly but again extra ordinary sessions could be led to discuss urgent and important matters.
The council meetings preceded those of the Assembly of the Heads of States governments and each.Minister has one vote.
THE GENERAL SECRETARIAT
It was headed by the secretary General who Was elected for a four year term of office and Could offer himself or herself for re-election if he/she wished.
It did the day to day work of OAU
Its headquarters was at Addis Ababa.
COMMISSION FOR MEDICATION, CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION
It was responsible for peaceful settlement of disputes including member of the 21 states.
OAU has also specialized commission and agencies which dealt with the more technical aspect of the organization.
PERFORMANCE OF O.A.U
In history OAU witnessed a number of achievement and failures.
ACHIEVEMENT OF O.A.U
Example i) EAC (East African community)
ECOWAS (Economic community of West Africa)
FAILURES OF O.A.U
CHALLENGES FACED BY O.A.U
THE AFRICAN UNION.
The union was launched in Durban, South Africa on 9th July 2002 to replaced the OAU
It was also attended by Louis Farrakham and the Nation of Islam delegation representing black in the diaspora.
Thabo Mbeki was elected the chairman of the union.
Former Ivorian minister (foreign) Amara Essy was elected the secretary general.
He replaced Tanzania Salim Ahmed Salim who served OAU for 12 years.
AIMS OF THE AFRICAN UNION
STRUCTURE OF THE AFRICAN UNION
The African union consists of the following organs
The Assembly
The execute council
The permanent representative committee
The commission
Specialized technical committee
The pan-African parliament
The economic, social and cultural council
Financial institutions.
The peace and Security Council
THE ASSEMBLY
It consists of the heads of states of all member states.
It is the most important decisions making body of the union.
It meets annually and elects a chair person.
In this assembly decisions are made by consensus or two third majority.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ASSEMBLY
iii) Adopts the budget.
THE EXECUTIVE COUNCIL
The council is made up of foreign affairs ministers of the member states.
The council is accountable to the Assembly.
Functiions of The Council
THE PERMANENT REPRESENTATIVE COMMITTEE
It is composed of ambassadors to the African Union and has the responsibility of preparing the work for the executive council.
THE COMMISSION
The commission is the secretariat of the union the chairman, a deputy and eight commissioners.
Functions of the Commission
iii) Co-ordinates AU activities and meetings.
SPECIALIZED TECHNICAL COMMITTEES
It deals with monetary and financial issues, the rural economy, trade, immigration, industry and science and technology.
They are responsible for implementation of projects and programmes of the union they are:
THE PAN – AFRICAN PARLIAMENT
Consist of elected representative nominated from five regions of African union.
THE COURT OF JUSTICE
The court rules on human rights abuses in Africa in terms of a legal statute framework.
THE ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL COUNCIL
Performs an advisory functionsand Is composed of professional and cruel representatives.
FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS.
Three financial institutions were set up under the African Union.
These institutions were to provide funding for projects and programmes.
PEACE AND SECURITY COUNCIL
This has 15 members responsible for monitoring and intervening in conflicts.
The council is a lerted by an early warning system as to any threat to security in the continent.
It is financed by a peace fund.
The council is advised by a council of elders and has an African force at its disposal.
This function of the council is outlined in Article 6 of AU charter.
Functions of Peace and Security Council
THE AU CHARTER
The AU charter was signed by 55 heads of states and of states and governments of the member states of the former organization of African unity (OAU) on 9th July, 2002 in Durban South Africa.
Like the OAU charter, it is a lengthy document with 33 articles.
Article 1: Deals with definitions of key term in the charter.
Article 2: States the establishment of AU in accordance with the provisions of the constitute act.
Article 3: Outlines the objectives of the union
Article 4: Defines the organs of the union
Article 5: Defines the organs of the union
Article 6: Outlines the composition and functioning of the assembly.
Article 7: Stipulates the process of decision making by the Assembly.
Article 8: Outlines the rules of procedure of the Assembly.
Article 9: States the powers and functions of the Assembly.
Article 10: Gives the composition of the Executive council and outlines it procedures
and functions.
Article 11 – 13: Stipulates the decision making process of the executive council
rules of procedures and functions.
Article 14 – 16: Outlines the establishment and composition of the specialized and
technical committee, giving their functions and organization.
Article 17: Establishes the Pan – African parliament and defines its composition,
powers, functions and organization.
Article 18: Establishes the court of justice, its statutes, composition and functions.
Article 19: Spells out the financial institution of the union.
Article 20: Deals with the establishment of a commission of the union to function as
the secretariat.
It defines its composition, structure, functions and regulation as
determined by the assembly.
Article 21: Establishes the permanent representative committee and spells out its
Responsibilities.
Article 22: Establishes the economic, social and cultural council as an advisory organs and states that its composition, power and organization are to be determined by the assembly.
Article 23: Deals with the imposition of sanctions against member states.
Article 24: Identifies the headquarters of the union as, Adis Ababa in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
Article 25: Defines the working languages of the union as, if possible African language, English, French and Portuguese.
Article 26: Empowers the court to deal with matter of interpretation arising from application on implementation of the charter.
Article 27: Deals with the signature, ratification and accession to the charter.
Article 28: Stipulates that the act shall enter into force 30 days after the deposit of the instrument of ratification by the member states of the AU.
Article 29 – 31: Outlines the procedure for membership, suspension and cessation of membership.
Article 32: Outlines the process of amendment and revision of the charter.
Article 33: Outlines the transitional arrangement and final provision in the transformation of OAU in the AU.
CHALLENGES FACING THE AU
UN secretary General Kofi Annan warned that if Africans wanted to follow the example of Europe after WWII and build a union, they would a union, they would have to resolve their conflicts.(African Union Sumit 2002).
This is where the powerful African countries like Nigeria and South Africa are afraid of using their own regional influence and concerned at any initiative that would weaken their sovereignty or ability to act independently.
THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
Formation of E.A.C
The community was formed to strengthen common market among Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania.
It was a culmination of efforts made since 1902 to promote economic co-operation for East African states.
This effort had seen the establishment of the East African High Commission in 1948.
The commission consisted of governors of Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika.
It was followed by East African community services organization EACSO.
The East African community was therefore to take over the control of some services and research activities from EACSO.
The East African community was therefore to take over the control of some services and research activities from EACSO.
After the three East African sates become independent in the early 1960s.
It was clear that the leaders of the state did not care about a federation.
It was however, still very necessary that a form of co-operation among this states be formed.
In 1965, the Philip commission was set up to look into possibilities of such a co-operation.
The commission recommended the setting up of the East African co-operation which could replace EASCO.
This recommendation formed the basis of the treaty of Economic co-operation of the three East African States.
In 1967, Presidents Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya) Milton Obote (Uganda) and Julius Nyerere Tanzania signed a treaty which established the East African Community.
This treaty came into effects on 1st December 1967.
MAJOR OBJECIVES OF THE TREATY
ORGANISATION OF EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY
To facilitate its organization the following structures and institutions were set up.
The East African Main Institutions
The East African community had special institutions which were established by the 1967 treaty.These institutions were charged with co-ordination of various activities in the community.
The institutions were:-
iii) The common market tribunal
THE EAST AFRICAN AUTHORITY
This was the supreme authority
It consisted of the three Heads of states
There main duty was to decide of major issues affecting the countries.
THE EAST AFRICAN LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
This assembly was charged with making of laws concerning the services provided by the community.
It had 36 member, three of whom were ministers, one secretary general and members chosen from the three states.
THE COMMON MARKET TRIBUNAL
This was a tribunal to settle trade disputes between the partner states.
THE COUNCILS
The councils were five
Namely i) Finance
iii) Common market
Each council had its own responsibility
THE CENTRAL SECRETARIAT
To- co-ordinate the work of these councils, a central secretariat was set up in Arusha, Tanzania.
The secretariat was responsible for seeing that the common market council succession was carried out.
It was headed by a secretary General.
THE COURT OF APPEAL
The court of appeal for East Africa was established in 1951.
It was to hear appeal from the courts in three member states.
The East African industrial court was a staff tribunal.
THE EAST AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT BANK ( EADB)
Another important organ of the East African community was the East Africna development Bank (E.A.D.B) which had its headquarters in Kampala.
The bank was established to promote balanced industrial development.
Objectives of the East African Development Bank
EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY CORPORATION.
Four East African community corporations set up in addition to the council.
These were
iii) The East African post and Telecommunication corporation with the East African airways corporation with it headquarters in Nairobi.
Facilities Which Came Under Direct Control On the Community
THE TABLE SHOWS THE EAC CORPORATIONS
Service Headquarters
E.A Post and Telecommunication corporation Kampala
E.A Customs and exercise Mombasa
E.A Development Bank Kampala
E.A income tax Nairobi
E.A Agriculture, veterinary and forest Research Muguga (Kenya)
E.A Amani institute (scientific Research) Amani (Tanzania)
E.A Fisheries Research Jinja
E.A Literature Bureau Nairobi
E.A Metrological Department Nairobi
E.A Civil Aviation Directorate Nairobi
E.A Marine Fisheries Zanzibar
Court of Appeal for East Africa Nairobi
E.A industrial Research Nairobi
E.A Tropical Pesticides Research Centre Arusha
E.A Airways Nairobi
CHALLENGES OF EAC UP TO 1977
10.Kenya complained that its Nationals working in Tanzania were being harassed.
Tanzania didn’t act on the complain as a result Kenya pulled her Nationals and established her own state organization.
REBIRTH OF THE EAC
In 1993, however the three East African leaders (president Moi of Kenya, Museveni of Uganda, and Mwingi of Tanzania) met to discuss the possible revival of the community.
On 30th November 1993, the three leaders signed an agreement in Arusha, Tanzania, reviving the East African community.
They emphasized the need for free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the three member states.
This was coupled with common services and joint policies for transport, communication, security, education, science and research would enhance regional co-operation.
During the second summit of 3 heads of states in Arusha on 29th April 197 it was divided that a process of treaty making begin that would involve further negotiation among the member states including the public.
The result was the establishment of East African community which was signed in Arusha on the 30th November 1999.
It became operational on the 7th July 2000 and the new regional organization came into being.
FORMATION
On 15th January 2001, the summit of the new East African community was held in Arusha.
It signed various protocols relating to the rules for the admission of other countries to the E.A.C
Thereafter the community was formerly launched.
AIMS OIF THE EAST AFRICA COMMUNITY
ORGANISATION OF THE EAC
The East African community has several organizations and institutions.
These a) Summit
THE SUMMIT
It comprises heads of governments of member states which meets at least once every year but may hold extra-ordinary meetings on the request of any member of the summit.
There is office of the chairperson and it’s rotational among the member states.
The main function of the summit is to give general direction toward the realization of community goals.
Decisions are made by consensus.
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
It is made up of ministers from the member states that are responsible for regional co-operation.
The council meets twice a year but a member state can request for an extraordinary council meeting.
The council is the main decision making institution.
It also implements the decision and directives of the summit and submits annual report.
It also prepares agenda for the summit.
THE CO-ORDINATING COMMITTEE
It comprises permanent secretaries responsible for regional co-operation.
It is subject to the direction of the council.
It meets at least twice a ear.
It co-ordinates the activities of the secretarial committees.
SECRETARIAL COMMITTEES
Established by the council on the recommendations of the respective coordinating committees.
They meet as often as is necessary.
They are responsible for the preparation of a comprehensive implementation of the programme of the community in respect to it sector.
THE EAST AFRICAN COURT OF JUSTICE
The court comprises of 6 judges two from each member states who are appointed by the summit.
The court is based in Arusha Tanzania.
It main function is to ensure the adherence to the law in the interpretation, application of and compliance with the East African community treaty
THE EAST AFRICAN LEGISLATIVE
It has 27 elected members and 5 ex official members consisting of the minister responsible for regional co-operation from the partner state and the secretary – General and the counsel to the community.
There is the speaker of the Assembly, committee of the Assembly and cleric to the Assembly.
The Assembly provides a democratic forum for debate.
It also has a watch dog function and plays a role in the legislative process.
THE SECRETARIAT
It is headed by the secretary – General who is appointed by the summit on rotation basis serves for a 5year period.
The secretary General is the chief executive officer of the community the accounting officer and the secretary of the summit.
He carries out any duties given to him by the council from time to time.
The secretariat in the executive arm of the community.
It ensures that regulations and directives adopted by the council are properly implemented.
OTHER AUTONOMOUS INSTITTION OF EAC
The autonomous institutions of the EAC which assist it in effective operation are
E.A.C CUSTOMS UNION
The treaty for establishment of the East African community provides that a custom union shall be the first stage in the process of economic integration.
Therefore real economic integration was only to commence with thee coming into the being of the customs union.
The treaty provides that the customs union shall be followed by a common market, then a monetary union and finally a political federation.
The objective of establishing a customs union is formation of a single custom territory to enable partner states to enjoy economies of scale with a view to supporting the process of faster economic union, EAC will create a single market of over 90 million people (2002) and a combined GDP of a round USA dollars 30 brailing, besides assisting to level the playing for the regions producers by imposing uniform competition policy and law.
The customs union became operational in February 2005.
There is now a common regime of taxes being followed on all goods among member states.
FEATURES OF CUSTOMS UNION.
A Common set of import duty rates applied on goods from third world countries.
Duty free and quota free movement of tradable goods among its constituent custom territories.
A common set of customs, rules and procedures.
A structure for collective administration of the custom union
A common trade policy with non memer states.
CHALLENGES FACING THE NEW EAC.
ECONOMIC COMMINTY OF WEST AFRICAN STATES (ECOWAS)
FORMATION
It began in 1958 when Ghana and Guinea formed a political union.
The two countries were joined by Mali.
In 1960, other Nations of West Africa began making moves along way of limited economic co-operation from 1963.
For example there was an agreement between Gambia and Senegal on currency matters, air service and trade.
There was also Niger River commission between Mali, Upper Bolta (Burkina Faso) and Niger on the use of the Niger River.
Other similar organization were the Lake Chad Basin commission between Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon and the Senegal commission between Senegal, Guinea, Mali and Mauritania.
In 1972, Togo and Nigeria signed a bilateral agreement after some quite diplomacy and consultations; the way was cleared for a meeting of the different West African Nation in 1974.
All the arrangement was preparatory steps towards the formation of ECOWAS which was formerly established with the signing of the treaty of Longos on 28th May, 1975.
Its operations began in November 1976.
Originally there were fifteen (15) signatories. Te community now has seventeen (17) (members, Cape Verde having joined in 1977.
MEMBER STATES OF ECOWAS
AIMS OF THE ECOWAS
ORGANISATION OF ECOWAS
The ECOWAS in order to streamline its operations put up the following structures in it organization.
AUTHORITY OF HEADS OF STATES AND GOVERNMENT
These is the supreme organ of ECOWAS and It meets once year, although extra ordinary session may be held in need arises.
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
It is composed of one minister from each member states and responsible for the general management of the organization.
THE TRIBUNAL
It is charged with the responsibility of interpreting the treaty.
It settles disputes between the member states.
EXECUTIVE SECRETARIAT
It is based in Lagos, Nigeria
It is headed by an executive secretary who serves for a four year term.
It is charged with the day to day administration of the organization and implementation of policies.
There are four specialized commission dealing with the following matters:
iii) Transport, communication and Energy
PERFORMANCE OF ECOWAS
CHALLENGES TO ECOWAS
THE COMMON MARKET FOR EASTERN AND SOCIAL AFRICA (COMESA)
COMESA replaced the former preferential Trade Area (PTA) which had been in existence from the early days of 1981.
It was established as an organization of free independent sovereign states which had agreed to co-operate in developing their natural and human resources for the good of all their people.
FORMATION OF COMESA
The treaty establishing COMESA was signed on 5th November 1993 in Kampala Uganda.
It was ratified a year later in Lilongw Malawi, on December 8th 1994 when the first COMESA Summit was convened.
The second COMESA was held on April 20th 1996 in Lusaka Zambia.
It focused on promotion of regional trade, economic integration, security and peace.
The third summit was held in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo on June 29th 1998 under the theme “information – a tool for increased Trade and investment in COMESA”
The Headquarters of COMESA is located in Lusaka Zambia
The Member Countries of Comesa
Comesa Treaty
According to the Agenda set by COMESA treaty the way forward to the organization was lead out as:
FUNCTIONN OF COMESA
ORGANISATION OF COMESA
There are four organs of COMESA which are empowered to take decisions on behalf of the organization.
These are
The Inter Government committee, the technical committees, the secretariat and the consultative committees mark recommendation to the council of ministers which in turn make recommendation to the authority.
THE AUTHRORITY OF EHADS OF STATES AND GOVERNMENT.
Consist of heads of states and governments
It is the supreme policy organ of the COMESA
Its decisions and directives are by consensus and are binding on all subordinate institutions, other than the court of justice on matters within the jurisdiction.
It is responsible for general policy and directs and controls the performance of the executive function of the common market.
It controls the achievement of the aims and objectives of the organization.
THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
It is composed of ministers designated by member states.
Decisions are made by consensus.
It makes policy decisions on the programmes and activities of COMESA.
The council monitors and reviews the financial and administrative management of the organization.
It ensures proper functioning of COMESA in accordance with the provision of the treaty.
COURT OF JUSTICE
It is the judicial organ of COMESA with jurisdiction over all matters referred to it as pursuant to COMESA treaty.
It ensures proper interpretation and application of the provision of the treaty.
The court of justice adjucates disputes among member states.
The decisions of the court are binding and final and the court act independently of the authority and council.
It is headed by a president and consists of six other judges appointed by the authority.
THE COMMITTEES OF GOVERNORS OF CENTRAL BANKS.
It is empowered by the treaty to determine the maximum debt and credit limit the COMESA clearing house.
It determines the daily interest rates for outstanding debt.
It also monitors and ensures the proper implantation of the monetary and financial co-operation programmes.
THE INTER – GOVERNMENT COMMITTEE
A multi- disciplinary body composed of permanent secretaries from member states in the areas of trade and customs, Agriculture, industry transport and communicatons, administrative and budgetary matters and legal affairs.
Decisions and made by a simple majority.
Main functions are:-
iii) It oversees the implementation of the provisions of the treaty and for that purpose request a technical committee to investigate any particular matter.
THE SECRETARIAT
It is headed by the secretary – General appointed by the authority for a five year term.
The secretariat provides technical support and advisory services the number states in the implementation of the treaty.
It undertakes research and studies as a basis of implementing the decision adopted by the policy organs.
THE CONSULTATIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BUSINESS COMMUNITY AND OTHER INTEREST GROUPS.
It mainly provides a link and facilitates dialogue between the business community and other interest groups and organs of COMESA.
TECHNICAL COMMITTEES
They are twelve
They are responsible for preparation of comprehensive implementation of programmes and monitoring their implementation before recommending to the council
They are one
Agriculture
Energy
Tourism and wildlife
Trade and customs
Transport and communication
Finance and monetary affairs
Legal affairs
Natural resources and social affairs
Comprehensive information systems.
PERFORMANCE OF COMESA
CHALLENGES FACING COMESA
NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES (KENYA).
National philosophy is a set of ideological beliefs championed by the ruling party that becomes widely acceptable within a particular country or political and geographical boundary.
Kenya has made tremendous progress since independence in political, social and economic fields.
African socialism.
Origin of African socialism.
Kenyan leaders under, the late mzee jomo Kenyatta, adopted African socialism as a national philosophy and ideology.
This was drafted as sessional paper no. 10 of 1965 entitled African socialism and its application to planning in Kenya.
This was due to:
Development of African socialism.
This was stated in sessional paper no. 10 of 1965, which had 58 major policy on economic, social and political development, such as:
The paper pointed out the need for Kenyans to be motivated by a sense of service and patriotism to their country and not to be driven by greedy desire for personal gains.
The government hoped that education would be a means of achieving some of these goals.
The government also provided medical care and social security for better society.
The paper particularly stressed that individuals property and ownership would be grauranteed. The government would not nationalized private property without adequate compensation and could participate in business either alone or in partnership with private investors.
The paper stressed the role of agriculture in national development, proper management of both private and public sectors through consolidation and registration of land.\
Progressive taxation, distribution of wealth and income would bring social equality through a heavier taxation on wealthier members of the society.
HARAMBEE.
Origin of harambee philosophy.
Kenya had three evils like povety, disease and ignorance.
The word harambee is basically a call for hard work in the difficult task of national building.
Development of harambee philosophy.
Its origin and applications have strong roots in our African traditions; it’s founded in the spirit of mutual social responsibility and is African socialism in practice.
Characteristics of harambee movement.
Harambee projects heve been grouped into three major categories:
NYAYO PHILOSOPHY.
Origin of nyayo philosophy.
Moi was the late mzee Kenyatta’s vice president for 12 years, he became president in 1978 and he decided to follow in the footsteps of mzee (nyayo) of harambee.
Nyayoism is derived from a Kiswahili word nyayo, which means footsteps.
Development of nyayo philosophy.
Nyayo philosoply is guided by the need by every Kenyan to be mindful of the welfare of each over.
It’s based on three pillars of peace, love and unity.
Moi said that nyayoism is neither new nor foreign and was not different from harambee.
The spirit of harambee continued to be an inspiration embodied in the nyayo philosophy.
In his book “Kenya African nationalism and principles’’ moi says, love begets unity, unity procreates peace and peace is the beginning of progress.
Impact of national philosophies on national development.
Impct of African socialism.
Impact of harambee philosophy.
Challenges facing harambee philosophy.
Impact of nyayo philosophy on Kenyans.
SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES IN KENYA SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Political Development from 1963 – 1991
Africa independence there were three political parties (Kenya Agricutural Union) Kenya African Democratic union and Africa people party.
KANU and know engaged massive countrywide supportive only in ukambani fomed by Paul Ngeil.
Jomo Kenyatta, the president of KANU deficted tethnic and ideological differences within KANUas there were through samps the nationalists led by Oginga Odinga and Bildad Kaggia with moderates led by Jomo Kenyatta, Tom Mboya and James Gishum.
KANU government faced rivaly from KADU which appointed for a judicial constution (majimbiano) as KANU favoured a unitary constitution for national unity.
Jomo Kenyatta for a long time tried to unite KANU and KADU without success in 1961, but in 1963 through his vice president Oginga Odinga persuade KADU and App to join KANU.
In 1964, parliament abolished the regional constitution which Kenya had at independence on 12th December 1964; Kenya became a Republic with an executive president.
The power of majimboism was abolished and adopted unitary government. There was a constitutional amendment in 1965 and 1966 especially in Executive through the control of provincial administration.
During the limuru conference of 1996, there were amendments eventing & provincial party vice – presidents instead of a single national vice-president.
This led to radicals breaking a way and formed Kenya Union (KPU)
There was another amendment of 1966 known as “Little General Election”
KANU won 21 in the lower house to the KPU’s seven. In the senate KANU took eight and KPU two.
From 1969 – 1982 Kenya remained a de facto one party state with (section 2A) as KANU the only legal political party.
In July 5, 1969 Tom Joseph Mboya was assassinated this lead to lack of confidence of the public in the government.
There was also the murder of Jusiah Mwangi Kariuki (J.M) in March 2, 1975.
Jomo Kenyatta died in 1978 and succeeded by Vice President Daniel Arap Moi who followed the footsteps of his predecessor. In 1988, general elections, KANU opted for the unpopular queue voting method against secret ballot.
In 1989, Dr. Joseph Karanja was appointed up to replace Mwai Kibaki who was appointed health Minister.
In February 1990, Dr. Robert Ouko died he was the minister of foreign Affairs and international co-operation his dead was a shock as there was demonstration in her county.
In 1990 KANU delegates abandoned the queue directing system
Multi-party democracy in Kenya
It began in 1963 with KANU, KADU and APP in 1964, KADU voluntarily merged with KANU as Kenya began de facts (one party state).
In 1960 have was political difference which leads to formation of Kenya peopoles union (KPU).
In June 1952, section 2(A) of the constitution was passed by parliament to make Kenya a de jure one party state this went on until December 1991 when same sections of 2(a) of the constitution was repeated by parliament (No.2) Bill 1996 relating the county to a multi-party system.
Factors that led to introduction of multi-parties
Challenges of Multi – Party Democracy
Many of the political parties are ethnically inclined lacking national outlook and hindering development and natural unity.
There is inadequate fund for parties to recruit members, conduct civic education, propagate their policies and even hold internal elections.
Political parties are used as vehicles to accord the power and amend wealth.
Personality differences among leaders have lead to infighting and wrangling within the parties this weakened and disintegrate the party.
Interference by government machinery like provincial administration.
Ideological differences among party leaders have affected the democratization process.
Uniformed literate and poor electorate.
THE ROLE OF POLITICAL PARTIES IN GOVERNMENT AND NATION BUILDING.
Nation building refers to the deliberate action of the government which assures improvement and increased social economic welfare of a people.
Role of the Ruling Party and Government and National Building
ROLE OF OPPOSITION PARTIES IN NATION BUILDING
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE
Economic Developments
The country lacked capital and qualified manpower and uneven development as some pasts of the country work for a head of others in development and in the provision of essential services.
Leaders of the nation undertook measures resolve his problems by adopting the national philosophies harambee, African personalism.
Nyayoism and the office development plans notable political social and economic changes have been realized like hand-holding in Kenya which refers to the various forms of land ownership.
PRINCIPLES OF LAND POLICY IN KENYA.
Equitable access in land.
Security of land rights
Transport and cast effective administration land.
Sound conservation and protection of ecologically sensitive areas.
Elimination of gender discrimination in land and property ownership.
Encouragement of commitment to settle land disputes through recognized local community initiatives.
Types of land holdings in Kenya
Public land
Community land
Private land
PUBLIC LAND
This land belongs to the public and the custodian is the National or County government it fails under the following descriptions.
Land used or occupied by the state organ.
Land transferred to the state by sale, surrender or reversion.
Land which no individual or community ownership can be established
Land where manuals and manual oils are found.
All government, games resolves, water catchments areas, national parks and animal sanctuaries.
All roads
All rivers, lakes, and water bodies defined by act of parliament.
The territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone and the sea – bed.
The continental shelf
All land between the high lower water – marks.
COMMUNITY LAND
This is land held by communities identifies on the basis of ethnicity
Culture or similar community of interest.
Land lawfully registered in the name of group representatives
Land lawfully transferred to a specific community by any process of law.
They other land declared to be community land by an act of parliament land that is laughly held, managed and used by specific communities.
Ancestral lands are lands traditionally occupied by hunter gatherer communities land lawfully held as trust land by the county government.
PRIVATE LAND
Registered land held by any person held under any free hold tenure land held by any person under leasehold tenure.
Any other land declared private land under an act of parliament.
Land holding by non citizens.
Its hold by someone who is not a Kenyan citizen through leasehold training and doesn’t exceed 99 years.
National land commission
FUNCTIONS
LAND POLICIES
At independence, the government embarked on seeking solutions to land problems which had formed the central reason for anti-colonial campaigns which were
It formed the ministry of lands settlement (1963) the scheme indirect resettling African farmers on many small – scale farms which were through sub-division of large scale farm.
Co-operatives and land buying companies were also formed to help purchase farms for member.
There were other schemes in the coastal area as land was plenty of underdeveloped land.
It set up the land adjudication and registration programme concerned with converting the traditional African land tenure system to one based on registered freehold tenure originally, it was known as land consolidation because fragmented plots owned by one person in a particular area were consolidated into one holding before registration.
The government gave priority to the prorgamme for the completion of adjudication because registration is important in spreading up subsequent agricultural development.
There were developing large scale farms like Agricultural Development Cooperation (ADC) which diversified the agricultural sector to avoid reliance on one or two crops.
There was also the development of Kenya. The Development Agency (KTDA) which has established tea factories to facilitate tea growing and processing in the country.
The government laid great emphasis on research through the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI).
It’s a result of all these efforts high yielding and resistant (hybrid) varieties of crops and animals have been introduced leading to tremendous increase in food production.
At independence, the total area under irrigation was 3,340 hectares (8,300 acres) in 1983 irrigation covered. The most ambitious projects were undertaken by the Bura scheme in Tana River, Ahero in Nyanza, Mwea Tebere in Central and Perkerra in rift valley.
The government established development authorities, such as the Tana – Athi river development authority (TARDA) Kerio valley and Lake Basin Development Authorities, which are responsible for the co-ordination and proper use of resources in each water catchment area.
There was land reclamation about 56,600 hectares of irrigation and reclaimed land in Western Kenya.
The government has put in place major changes in land use which increase action to arrest land degradation caused by
Destruction of forests through clearing for cultivation or timber.
Poor cultivation methods especially on hillsides.
Reduction of water and grazing areas, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas.
Successive crop failure and diminishing crop yields.
Over stocking and cultivation along river banks.
The Ministry of Agriculture has, compiled an agro-ecological zone mapping which correlates information on rainfall, water and soil topography for possible cropping patterns.
There permanent presidential commission on soil conservation and afforestation in 1981.
There is also national tree planting day.
The government promoted the growth and development of co-operatives in the country which are agriculture based co-operatives.
CHALLENGES FACING LAND POLICIES
INDUSTRY.
At independence Kenya’s industrial development was basically of primary nature based on processing of agricultural raw materials and few mineral exploited in the country.
The government formed the Kenya industrial Estate (K.I.E) which was to provide technical advice and capital for the establishment of factories.
The girl provided environment for local – based banks like Kenya commercial Bank (KCB) and National Banks of Kenya (NBK) for loans and credit to Africans to start industries.
The government started factories such as the Kisumu cotton mills (KICOMI) Kenya Titexmills (KTM) in Thika and Nanyuki textiles while it encouraged the establishment of private textile industrial such as Raymonds and the Blankets factory in Nakuru.
The independence government encouraged the establishment of light engineering industries like jembes, pangas, nails, iron sheets and barbed wires.
Kenya ventured into production of heavy motor vehicles by setting up motor vehicles Assembly plant in Thika.
There was the venture into chemical industries following the establishment of oil refineries at changamwe, Mombasa.
Kenya is able to pump oil from Mombasa to other parts of the country through the establishment of Kenya oil pipeline.
Kenya has proper manufacturing industry in Webuye.
The agro – based factories to process tea, coffee and fruit were set up in the agricultural areas.
There is also beverage and food processing, especially in Soft drinks and grain milling (flour).
The developments in industries were boosted by the establishment of hydro-power at Okaria Naivasha.
The expansion of sugar processing industries was developed in the sugar cane growing areas of mumias, chemilil and others.
The government also encouraged the establishement of jua kali artisan industries using scrap and the recyling of materials.
The government has encouraged the growth of the tourism industry by supporiting organizations that support the industry.
CHALLENGES FACING INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES
EDUCATION.
Education is the only way to develop skilled man power to replace expatriates in civil, service, commence and industry. The government therefore made deliberate.
There were committees setup to advice the government like Ominde commission of 1964 -1965, Gachathi (1976) Mackay (1982), Kariithi(1983), Kamunge(1983) and Koech (2002).
Most of the recommendation changes were adopted, like in 1963 there was 6,058 primary schools and in1986 of incrused to 18, 392.
In 1963, there were 151 secondary schools and in 1986 there were 2,485 in 1913, there were only one university.
In 1970 the University of Nairobi was born by 1993 there were force on versities Harambee institutes of Science and technology have been established in almost every district in the country.
Post – secondary training colleges and institutions wars opened in areas of agriculture, veterinary, forestry cooperatives, water technology medicine and others.
Three natural polytechnics were established in Nairobi, Mombasa and Eldoret.
Other educational departments and institutions were established under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education to perform tasks aimed at polishing up the system like inspectorate of schools.
The Kenya Institute of Edcuation (KIE) was established to develop relevant curriculum teaching/learning materials for use by schools and colleges.
The Kenya National Examinations council was established to develop administration and certify national examinations.
Kenya literature Bureau was established to publish materials for use in schools and colleges.
The Department of Adult Education in the Ministry of culture and social services was set up to develop and supervise the implementation of adult educations programmes.
The government recognized Kiswahili as national language while English remained the official Lingua Franca.
There was change in the educational system since independence; the 8-4-4 was affected in 1985.
The new curriculum emphasis practical and vocational – oriented subjects such as crafts, art work, metal work, agriculture, carpentry and home science.
In 1974, free primary education was introduced.
Currently there are 7 public universities in Kenya, private universities and others colleges.
University education has further been – enhanced through the sending of Kenyan students to the overseas universities.
In 2003, the government implemented the free primary education as directed by the ruling party the National Rainbow coalition.
CHALLENGES FACING EDUCATION
High drops out rates of girls due to pregnancies or early marriages
HEALTH
At independence the governments acknowledge that there was need to eradicate disease along with poorly and ignorance. The government has been committed in the provision and improvement of health service to its people. This has lead to establishment of health centres, dispensaries and hospitals throughout the county.
The Ministry of Health established the position of director of medical services as head of the medical profession based in Nairobi. The provincial and district medical officers are in charge of the provinces and districts respectively.
The Ministry has established pre national referral hospitals at Keny/prenational hospital and their university referral hospital.
There has been successful national wide immunization against preventive dicenses and accessing of family planning services to the people.
A constituency AIDs fund has been legislated where funds are channeled specifically to educate and control the spread of HIV/AIDS infection.
The government has encouraged private hospitals and clinics to expand and extent hospitals.
Some municipalities provide health services for their residents and environmental health.
There is the formation of National hospital insurance fund (NHIF). The insurance cover facilitates access to health services to workers and self employed persons.
By 1990 there were 83 hospitals, rural health training centres, 1084 dispensaries
21 medical training colleges and one national public health laboratory run by the ministry of health.
The African medical research foundation (AMREF) was formed to enhance the provision of community health support, and Kenya Medical Research
To make health and medical services accessible to a large population the government provides highly subsidized cost sharing services in its hospitals, dispensaries and clinics.
The establishment of the faculty of medicine in more university added to the number of high cadre medical personnel training provided by University of Nairobi.
CHALLENGES FACING HEALTH
CULTURE AND SPORTS.
Culture was developed to enhance national unity like through various documents notably the constitution, the government sessional paper No.10 of 1965 and political parties led by the ruling parties KANU (1963 – 2002) and NARC from 2003 emphasis have been made on the role of culture, sports games and art.
The Ministry of Education has set as one of its objectives for the children of Kenya as the promotion of respect for and development of Kenya’s rich varied cultures.
The ministry of Gender, sports and culture has also undertaken measures that promote culture and sports.
MUSIC AND DANCES
There is currently hundreds of traditional music and dance troupes all over the county as evidenced during national celebrations.
DRAMA
Drama is popular in schools, the ministry of education together with the Department of culture and the Ministry of gender, sport and culture has been organizing annual drama and music festivals.
THEATRE
The Kenya National Theatre has been a centre for the promotion of theoretical performance especially in Nairobi local and foreign plays are staged.
SCRIPTURE
Sculpturing within the creative arts is an area which continues to attract several talented young Kenyans like mamba carvings Kisii soapstone carvings
CRAFT
Many rural people earn their living through the use of traditional technology like Bakery, poultry, traditional ironmonongery and other traditional skills.
The department of culture in cooperation with increased agencies is encouraging research in traditional technologies in such areas as food production and traditional medicines.
Cultural Festivals
This has enabled the various ethnic groups to learn and appreciate each other’s cultural heritage. The department of culture has encouraged the construction of rural and urban cultural centres.
Research and Documentation
Most of the cultural and historical research is being done by the University of Nambia especially at the institute of African studies.
Cultural Exchange programmes
The Kenya government has signed cultural exchange agreements with several countries which have resulted in a mutual exchange of artists.
The Cinema
Major urban centres have many theatres which show local and foreign films or movies in local areas, films are shown by the mobile cinema vans of the Ministry of information and communication to educate and entertain people.
Sports.
Kenya is well known internationally for the outstanding sportsman and women it has produced. The Ministry of gender, sports and culture has in the last decade embarked on the construction of facilities such as studies and other complex units.
Recreation
Social change and cultural contacts have brought new types and idioms of music, dance, games and other forms of entertainment in the country. The modern sports and games include track field events, soccer, golf, volleyball, basketball, cricket, bridge, netball and indoors games such as and droughts.
CHALLENGES FACING CULTURE AND SPORTS
CHAPTER 6
SOCIAL POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND CHALLENGES IN AFRICA SINCE INDEPENDENT
Most centres by 1965 had achieved political independence such as to achieve political, economic and social development.
Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)
It was formerly known as Zaire under the late Mobutu Seseseko.
It was colonized by Belgiam and gain independence in June 30th 1960.
Political Developments.
At independence Joseph Kasarubu the leader of the Bakonge Association became president while Patrick Lumumba the leader of the Congolese National movement (MNC) became Prime Minister.
There were no educated Congolese so most senior posts were taken by unites political problems began when whites opposed to the granting of independence to the country.
There were chaos and the whole country was planned into disorder in what came to be known as the “Congo Crisis”
It began in the army as the Africans in the army maintained against the Belgian officers. The new state did not have enough army as they relied on the old white officers.
The Africans were opposed to this, a situation they regarded as a sell – out by politicians.
The Belgium sends its army to the DRC to quell the military and also protect Belgium civilians.
They Africans soldiers move dissatisfied when the Belgium navy bumbed the coastral town of matiadi as they killed many Belgian civilians.
This lead to a military, engagement as it lead to lawlessness and disorder.
There was another tension in the South where M Tishamba was preparing a secessionist movement of the Kitanga (Shaba).
He used the held of Belgiana soldiers to establish has own independent state.
This also prompted a rebellion in Kasai provinces.
The problem were so confronted as the government asked for military assistance from the U.N who were of no great help as it had policy of into interfering in the international affairs of a country.
Lumumba and Kasavubu were political antagonists; they had internal squabbles which lead to Lumumba’s assassination in December 1960. This was due to Lumumba held radical views, while Kasavubu belonged to conservative.
Lumumba followers pulled out of govenement and want preventable and formed their own government and justice guervilla training camps to overthrow Kazavubu.
The African leadership with U.N involvement the day by forming of national coalition government under Cyrille Adoula and Atitonine Gizenga.
Aduola’s tenure of office ended in 1964 and Silvester Kimba became prime minister and Kasalabu presidents.
In 1915, the government of Kasavubu was overthrown by the army and by General Joseph Desive Mobutu in a bloodless coup.
Mobutu established a dictatorial government under a capacity system, banning other parties suspending the constitution and parliament and renaming the country Zaire centralization of power by Mobutu intensified internal opposition.
Rebeltion under Laurent Kabila emerged in 1997 Mobutu was outled from power, and Laurent Owire kabila as he was assassinated in 2001. He was succeded by his son Joseph Kabila, as president.
Rebellion led by Wamba Dia Wamba and Eunice Ihanga continued against Kabila’s government.
Finally, through mediation by the then South African President, Thabo Mbeki and UNs envoy mosptapha Niasse, a government of national unity was formed in the DRC in April 2002.
THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
Developments in industry through the policy of nationalization by Mobutu, minerals like copper, oil and diamond were exploited petroleum and hydroelectric resources were developed for energy production.
Foreign investments in key sectors were encouraged like agriculture, mining, industries, transport and communication.
New roads and railways were constructed and navigated on the river congo.
Trade improved at the local level as well as at the international level.
The entertainment industry grew due to the popular Congolese music. The foreign based musicians sent part of their profits back home.
THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The authenticity programme by Mobutu enhanced the Congolese culture Mobutu dropped his Christian name, Joseph, and became Mobutu Sese Seko in 1971 and the country’s name to Zaire.
Education was developed under Mobutu primary, secondary and universities expanded.
Health services were improved as hospital and health centres were built with national mineral insurance programme and a pension scheme for workers.
Sports, music and dance were supported by the government in allocation of funds. Zaire was remained the democratic republic of conge by President Laurent Kabila in 1997.
CHALLENGES FACING
TANZANIA
After attaining her independence in 1963, Tanganyika embarked on an ambitions development programme.
The main political mileage was the union of Tanganyika under Julius Nyerere, with Zanzibar under Abeid Karume forming Tanzania in 1964.
The Arusha declaration was signed in 1967, laying down the principles for development as self – reliance ujamaa (Socialism) nationalization and rejection of all forms of discrimination based on class, wealth, status, religion and sex.
Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged their two parties Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) and the Afro – Shiraze party (CP) to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM) in 1977.
Nyerere made remarkable efforts in Tanzania’s growth.
Nyerere retired in 1985 and was succedded by Ali Hassan Mwinyi.
Multiparty elections were held in Tanzania in 1995 under Benjamin Mkapa, who was elected the president.
In 2005, Jakaya Kikwete became the 4th president of Tanzania.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS.
Increased agricultural production through the ujamaa programme.
Industrial development in sisal and textile industries and other small industries like cement oil and steal industries.
Income generating projects have been undertaken by the youth in Tanzania.
The nationalization policy assisted the government to transfer businesses from Europeans to Africans.
Transport and communication infrastructure was developed like Tanzan oil pipeline and Tazara railway line.
Trade imported, especially with Arusha being the headquarters of the rained East African Community.
SOCIAL EMPLOYMENT
Improvement the fields of education, schools and industries have been built.
By 1985, Tanzania had the highest literacy lead in East Africa.
Health and sanitation services were provided as hospitals and dispensaries were built.
The use of Kiswahili as the national and official language has enhanced cultural bonding.
The country guarantees freedom of worship.
CHALLENGES FACING TANZANIA
Social, Economic and Political Challenges In Africa Since Independence
ECONOMIC CHALLENGES
SOCIAL CHALLENGES
CHAPTER 7
DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT
It’s where a central government delegates certain powers and responsibility to lower levels of government according to the constitution.
In Kenya we have the National government when delegate its powers and responsibilities to the county government.
PRINCIPLES OF DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT
It’s based on democratic principles
Founded on the doctrine of separation of powers.
Reliable source of revenue
Not more than two thirds of the members of representative bodies are from the same gender.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
County Assembly
This is the law-making body where member are elected after every five years during the general election and serves for term of five years.
Composition of the County Assembly
Elected members voted in registered voters of the wards.
The number of special seat members to ensure no more than 2/3 rds of the memberships of the assembly are of the same gender.
Representatives of the youth and persons with disability.
The speaker who is an ex-officio member.
Features of the County Assembly
It makes and amends laws of the county.
It sensitizes the making of the county executive committee and other organs.
Receives and approves plans and policies for management and exploitation of the county’s resources.
Approves plans and policies for the development and management of the county’s infrastructure and institutions.
Summon any person to appear before it for the purpose of giving evidence or providing information.
Process of Law Making in the County
The laws are made by the county Assembly which is necessary for the county to effective perform its functions.
A bill has to go through the following stages.
1st Reading
A bill is introduced in the assembly as members familiarize with its contents.
2nd Reading
The bill is discussed and amendments or improvements are suggested
Committee Stage
Here it’s scrutinized by the committee and suggestions from the second reading included.
Report Stage
The committee reports to the assembly where members confirm tht her suggestions have been included.
3rd Reading
The bill is once again debated in details and any further amendments included.
Governors Assent
The governor signs the bill into law. It is then published in the Kenya Gazette.
Executive Committee
It implements the policies and programmes of the county. It’s headed by the governor who is assisted by the Deputy Governor.
Powers and functions of the county governor
FUNCTIONS OF THE DEPUTY COUNTY GOVERNOR
COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEES
County governor
Deputy County”
Members appointed by governor with approval of assembly.
FUNCTIONS OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNTY GOVERNMENT
Relationship between the county and National government
CHALLENGES FACING THE COUNTY GOVERNMENT
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
CHAPTER 8
PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA
It’s the money which the government raises from various sources while expenditure is the money which the government spends on it is operations and development. And gided by:-
Openess and accountability including public participation.
Sharing the burden of taxation fairly.
Sharing the revenue equitability among national and county government.
Using public money in a prudent and responsible way.
Having a clear responsible method of financial management.
THE NATIONAL BUDGET
It’s the estimate of government revenue and expensive for the ensuring fiscal year.
The amount of revenue the government requires and hopes to raise sources for government revenue.
The projects which the government intends to spend.
IMPORTANCE OF GOVERNMENT BUDGET
SOURCES OF PUBLIC REVENUE
EXPENDITURE
Capital expenditure and recurrent expenditure.
CAPITAL EXPENDITURE
This is money spent on new public projects during a particular financial year like construction of roads, dams, railways and purchase of vehicles and machinery.
RECURRENT EXPENDITURE
This is money spent on a regular basis through but a given financial year like payment of salaries, repair and maintenance of buildings roads and equipment and purchase of drugs and stationery.
The National government spends money in the following
Capital Expenditure
Construction of national infrastructure
Financing national development, projects like electricity generation.
Construction of higher education institutions.
Construction of national referral health facilities.
Recurrent Expenditure
Paying of salaries of state officer.
Repairing and maintaining natural infrastructure.
Establishment and maintainace of security organs
Serving external and domestic debts.
Maintenance of foreign embassies
Remitting funds to international organization like U.N.
Maintance and repair of county infrastructure.
Payment of salaries of county employees.
Purchase of drugs, stationery, funds and lubricants
Servicing of loans incurred by county government.
Collection of refuse and solid waster disposal
Management of Public Finance
National Government
A budget is made to show expenditure
Parliament passes legislation prescribing the terms which the national give may borrow many.
Cabinet secretary in charge of finance reports to the relevant committee on the amount of debt use, servicing and progress of repayment.
Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control and transparency.
The C.S for finance has power to temporarily stop the transfer of funds to a state organ in the event of mismanagement.
The controller of budget surprises implementation of the budget of the natural government.
The mediator-general audits government ministries and departments and within six months after the end of a financial year submits a report in parliament.
The principle secretaries are accountable of the national Assembly for financial management within their ministries.
The Kenya anti – corruption authority investigates and recommends for prosecution of public officials who mismanage and embezzle funds.
COUNITY GOVERNMENT
There is a budget preferred every year.
Many borrowed by a county government must be guaranteed by the National government and approved by the county assembly.
Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control and transparency in the county government.
Many can be stopped by C.S. for finance to prevent mismanagement.
There is open tendering of procurement and disposal of public goods and services.
Implementation of the county budget is supervised by controller of budget.
The revenue and expenditure of county government is audited by the Auditor general.
The governor is accountable to the county Assembly for financial management.
The KACC investigate and recommends for profession f public offices who misappropriate funds.
Functions of the Commission on Revenue Allocation
THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENTS IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD.
U.S.A
It began n 1770 when it government its independence.
In 1787, therefore, a convention of delegation from the seeral states met in Philadelphia and drew up a constitution.
The constitution was ratified in 1783 and George Washington took office as the first president of the U.S.A in 1789.
The Constitution had the following Features.
It was federal
It was written
The constitution was the supreme law of land.
The bills of rights with rights and freedoms.
The constitution was to be interpreted by the Supreme Court.
The legislature was bicameral.(representative and house of congress).
The processes of constitutional amendments were clearly spelt out.
There was independent executives Judiciary and legislation.
The Federal Process in the U.S.A
There were two types of elections in U.S.A
general elections.
By- election.
General Elections: it’s conducted every years at the end of presidential term and following dissolution of the house of representatives like president
Senators
State government
By – Elections it’s conducted when a seat falls vacant.
Presidential elections. Held after four years.
Political parties rank and nomination of its candidates there is pre-elections nomination known as primary election.
The political parties were democrats and republicans.
Republicans: traditionally draw support from the North particularly among businessman and industrial its conservative.
They had two principals.
Maintaining high tariffs (impart duties, safeguard American Industry)
A Laissez-faire approach to government.
Democrats’ bedrock.Support lies in this south and from immigrants in the large cities of the North. They are more progressive.
They are also independent candidates who run sponsorship primary elections are held between March and May of the election year.
Party conventions. Are held before July to confirm the winner of the primary elections as part candidate. In case the seating president is eligible to contest the election his party also holds a connection to endorse him and map out campaign strategies. After party conventions, the campaign period formerly states.
The presidential candidate picks a running mate who if they win the election will become the vice-president.
The mass media plays a crucial role like salling the polices and values of the candidates and the party and also hold three debates which are broadcasted live.
To finance the campaigns parties hold fund raisings, party members gives the candidates money to meet their travel and advertisements.
Public opinion polls are surveys conducted by newspaper and leading television network. They assess the performance of the candidates in the public opinion.
Presidential elections are held on 2nd November of the election year. Americans both at home and abroad vote before or on that day and counted on 22nd.
The winner of the presidential poll takes office in January of the following year. He appoints senior civil servants, ambassadors, cabinet but confirmed by the senate.
The election for senators held after every two years, they saver for a period of six years. They can be re-elected as many times as possible.
The election of the members of the House of Representatives is held after two years. Every member must belong to a political party.
Election for state governors and legislative bodies are held after every four years.
Qualifications for presidential candidate
A U.S.A citizen by birth
Must be 35 years and above.
Must have lived in USA for at least 14years.
Qualification for a senator
Must be U.S.A citizen for at least 9 years
Must be 3 years and above.
Must be a readent of the state.
Qualification for a member of the House of Representatives
Must be a U.S.A citizen for not less than seventy years.
Must be at least twenty five years old.
Must be a resident of the state.
FUNCTION OF THE U.S.A GOVERNMENT
The Legislative (congress)
Conists of the senate and the House of Representatives. Its functions include
The Executive
Consists of the president, the vice president, the cabinet and the civil services.
The president is the chief executive, chief translator, chief diplomat, and commander in –chief of the armed forces.
The cabinet functions include
The vice – president
He/she is allowed to succeed the president in the absent of death, resignation or impeachment. Vice president chairs senate meetings and votes in event of a tie over an issue.
Judiciary
It’s divided into federal and state courts.
Functions
Resettle disputes between the president and congress, federal government and the states interpreting the constitution.
Handling cases involving the U.S.A and other states.
THE DOCTRINE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS
This means that namely the three arms of the U.S.A government is the powerful to interfere with the function of the other.
There is charts and balances with the three arms.
The president is not as powerful as it might appear. This is because elections to the house are held after losing two years, and a third of the senate is elected after every two years.
If the president can veto laws congress can overturn this veto.
The congress cannot remove a president unless it prove that a serious crime.
The Supreme Court keenly monitors both the president and congress.
Relationship between states and the Federal Government.
The U.S.A give operates on division of powers between the central and state government.
State legislatures are empowered to pass laws on purely state matters.
States are empowered to run their own affairs in areas of provision of social services like healthier duration and welfare.
Advantages of a Federal system of government
Disadvantages
BRITAIN
BACKGROUND
It began long as a struggle between parliament and the kings and in some instances, civil wars emptied. By the, there was transfer of power from the king to parliament.
Parliament pasted the bill of rights which established a constitutional monarchy this meant that the monarch was to rule under guidance from parliament
It has unwritten constitution however, here are various documents
Acts of parliament e.g magna cartel of
Legal publication by reputable authorities such as scholars, lawyers, political thinkers and statesman.
The Hansard which is the official verbatim reports of parliament.
Decisions made by the British law courts from time to time.
Royal prerogatives e.g deaclaring war.
Conventions and practices which have become respected are regarded as part of British constitution.
The Electoral process in Britain
Electives are hold within five years, with three political parties
The liberal party, which draws its member from the rich.
The labour party, which is a party of the middle class especially workers.
The conservative party which is backed by nobles and the clergy.
Anyone above 18years can vote.
Elections are secret ballot.
Candidates are sponsored by political parties.
The party with the majority of seats forms the government upon invitational by king or queen.
The leader of the party majority of seats in parliament becomes prime minister.
The prime minister forms the girl by making appointments to the cabinet senior civil service and foreign affairs.
Functions of government in Britain
Monarch, house of loads, house of command and the prime minister.
THE MONARCH
Its Head By queen or king
After election the queen invites the leader of party majority in the house of common to form a government answerable to parliament.
The queen summons the new parliament and both the houses together in the house oif lords.
Functions of the Monarch
The House of Lords
Its function is legislative.
It also examines bills as they pass through parliament.
It keeps cheeks and balance of the power of the executives.
Ways to become a member of House of Lords.
Appointed by the Monarch
Through inheritance
Appointment to certain offices like judges and Archbishop
Functions of the House of Lords
The House of Commons.
It’s a legislative aim of government
It controls the recons and expenditure and also directs government pulley members are elected by people.
Qualification for Candidates
Functions of the House of Commer
The Executive
The Prime Minister
He/she is ruminated by directly by doctorate, through parties
Its servers for 5 years
After election leaders of the party with the highest number of M.P.S becomes the prime minister and thus forms the government.
Functions of the prime Minister
The Cabinet
They are appointed by the Prime Minster from the legislative which has to be approved by sovereign/
Functions
Doctrine of Parliamentary supremacy
This means that parliament is the supreme and highest authority.
Parliament is the only organ allowed to make and amend laws.
All other organs of government operate under laws enacted by the parliament.
Parliament is empowered to pass a vote of no confidence in the executive
Parliament must approve all government recon and expenditure.
Limitations of the parliamentary supremacy
INDIA
Background
India attained independence form Britain in 1947.
India house of people is equivalent into single member districts
It has a number of political parties; such as the congress party had the communist parties’ candidates for the districts have to fulfill the set requirements.
Electoral process.
During the general elections, presidential, parliamentary and regional governments elections are held.
Elections are held after every five years.
Elections for the legislative.
The parliament of the union is a bicameral house
It consists of two houses namely council of state and the house of the people.
Qualifications for the House of the People.
Elections for the Presidency
Function of Government of India
State governments are responsible for
Functions of the president.
The functions of the Prime Minister
Functions of the Parliament
Enacting and amending the laws of the union.
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