English Grammar Best, Simplified Notes Form one to Four
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
SIMPLIFIED
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: PARTS OF SPEECH
NOUNS:…………………………………………………………
Common and Proper nouns………………………….
Countable and uncountable nouns ……………….
Singular and Plural nouns…………………………..
Collective nouns……………………………………….
Compound nouns………………………………………
Possessive nouns………………………………………
PRONOUNS:…………………………………………………….
Personal pronouns…………………………………….
Possessive pronouns…………………………………
Contractions with pronouns………………………..
Idefinite pronouns…………………………………….
Demonstrative pronouns…………………………….
Interrogative pronouns……………………………….
Reflexive and Intensive pronouns………………….
VERBS……………………………………………………….…..
Action verbs……………………………………………
Linking verbs………………………………………….
Verb phrases…………………………………………..
Verb tenses……………………………………………
Subject-Verb Agreement…………………………..
Regular and Irregular Verbs………………………
Active and Passive Verb Forms……………………
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs…………………
ADJECTIVES…………………………………………………….
Descriptive Adjectives………………………………
Demonstrative Adjectives………………………….
Definite and Indefinite Adjectives……………….
Interrogative Adjectives……………………………
Articles and Possesive Pronouns…………………
Comparing with Adjectives………………………..
ADVERBS……………………………………………………….
Adverbs Describing Verbs………………………….
Adverbs Describing Adjectives……………………
Describing other Adverbs…………………………..
Specific categories of Adverbs……………………
Formation of Adverbs……………………………….
Negatives Comparing with Adverbs………………
PREPOSITIONS……………………………………………….
Common Prepositions……………………………..
Prepositional Phrases……………………………….
Preposition Adverb…………………………………..
CONJUCTIONS …………………………………………..
Coordinating Conjuctions…………………………..
Subordinating Conjuctions…………………………
Correlative Conjuctions……………………………..
INTERJECTIONS………………………………………………
CHAPTER TWO: FORMATION AND ORIGIN OF WORDS..
Sound words (onomatopoeias)…………………….
Eponyms…………………………………………………
Portmanteau words…………………………………..
Prefix ad suffixes……………………………………..
Words usage……………………………………………
Homographs……………………………………………
Homophones…………………………………………..
Synonyms………………………………………………
Antonyms……………………………………………….
Idioms and sayings…………………………………..
CHAPTER THREE: PHRASES……………………………………
Nouns Phrases………………………………………..
Verb Phrases……………………………………………
Prepositional phrases………………………………..
Gerund Phrases………………………………………..
Participial Phrases…………………………………….
Infinitive phrases……………………………………..
CHAPTER FOUR: SENTENCES………………………………….
What is a sentence?………………………………….
Sentence Fragments…………………………………
Objects…………………………………………………..
Complements………………………………………….
Types of sentences…………………………………..
Simple sentences……………………………………..
Compound sentences………………………………..
Complex sentences…………………………………..
Declarative sentences……………………………….
Interrogative sentences……………………………..
Exclamatory sentences……………………………….
Imperatives sentences……………………………….
Conditional sentences………………………………..
Direct and indirect speech…………………………..
Question tags…………………………………………..
CHAPTER FIVE: CAPITALIZATION AND PUNTUATION……..
Capitalization……………………………………………
Punctuation……………………………………………..
End marks……………………………………………….
The comma………………………………………………
The Semicolon and the Colon……………………….
The Hypen………………………………………………..
The Apostrophe…………………………………………
Quotation Marks………………………………………..
SCHEMES OF WORK FORM TWO ENGLISH TERM 1-3
ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND POETRY NOTES
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PREFACE
This book has been specially prepared to meet the needs of Secondary School Students and learners of English as a second language. It embarks on enlightening them on the nature and structure of the English Grammar in a very simplified and understandable manner.
English is the official language and the main medium of instruction in many countries in the world. Besides this, it is an examinable subject in many national examinations. Hence this book will certainly come handy for many people in the world.
Numerous exercises have been provided after every single topic to give the students a chance to practice and test their understanding of the areas discussed. Answers to those exercises are provided at the back of this book.
It is my hope that this book will simplify the English grammar for all who read it.
PART ONE
PARTS OF SPEECH
All words may be classified into groups called parts of speech. There are 8 parts of speech namely: Nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
We shall now discuss these parts of speech one at a time:
CHAPTER ONE
A noun is the part of speech that names a person, a place, a thing or an idea. You use nouns every day when you speak or write. Every day you probably use thousands of nouns. Because nouns name the objects and people and places around you, it would be very difficult to talk about anything at all without them. Many nouns name things you can see:
Persons Places Things
Boy Lake Boot
Student Country Shadow
John Kamau Nairobi Chair
Stranger Jupiter Sweater
Writer Kenyatta Market Calendar
Barrack Obama Sierra Leone Short story
Note: Nouns can be two or more words e.g. John Kamau, Kenyatta Market and Short story. They are called compound nouns. We shall learn more about them in coming pages.
Some nouns name things you cannot see such as feelings, ideas and characteristics:
Feelings Ideas Characteristics
Excitement Freedom Curiosity
Fear Justice Cowardice
Anger Fantasy Courage
Happiness Faith Imagination
Surprise Evil Self-confidence
Exercise 1
What words in each sentence below are nouns?
Example: John is a dancer – John, dancer
Exercise 2
Copy the nouns below and write whether it names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
Example: river – place
Exercise 3
Write down each noun in the following sentences.
Example: Kenya is a beautiful country – Kenya, country
There are different kinds of nouns:
All nouns can be described as either common or proper. When you talk or write about a person, a place, a thing, or an idea in general, you use a common noun.
Example: Doctors work hard. They treat many patients.
A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns always begin with capital letters.
Example: Ephraim Maree is a doctor. He comes from Kirinyaga.
Note: When a proper noun is made up of more than one word, only the important words in the noun will begin with a capital letter. Do not capitalize words such as the, of, or for.
Example: Gulf of Mexico, State of Liberty, the Commander – in – Chief.
Common and Proper Nouns
Common nouns Proper nouns Common nouns Proper nouns
street Kerugoya city Raila Odinga
author South Africa ocean Wanjohi wa Kigogo-ini
policeman Asia bed Moi Avenue
country Indian Ocean wardrobe Lake Victoria
mountain England continent Dr. Frank Njenga
lake Nelson Mandela assistant Professor Saitoti
Proper nouns are important to good writing. They make your writing more specific, and therefore clearer.
Exercise 4
Which words are proper nouns and should be capitalised? Which words are common nouns?
Example: kenya Proper: Kenya
Exercise 5
List the common nouns and the proper nouns in each of the following sentences.
Example: Nancy welcomed the guests.
Proper: Nancy common: guests
1.2 Singular and Plural Nouns
A noun may be either singular or plural.
A singular noun names one person, place, thing, or idea.
Example: The farmer drove to the market in his truck.
A plural noun names more than one person, place, thing or idea.
Example: The farmers drove to the markets in their trucks.
Rules for forming plurals
The following are guidelines for forming plurals:
Examples: Street – streets, house – houses, painter – painters, shelter – shelters, event- events, hospital – hospitals.
Examples: dress-dresses, brush-brushes, ax-axes, coach-coaches, box – boxes, bench-benches, dish-dishes, waltz – waltzes.
Examples: Piano-pianos, solo-solos, cameo – cameos, concerto – concertos, patio-patios, studio-studios, radio-radios, rodeo – rodeos.
Examples: hero – heroes, potato – potatoes, echo-echoes, veto – vetoes, tomato – tomatoes.
Examples: Library – libraries, activity – activities, story – stories, city – cities, berry – berries.
Examples: Valley – valleys, essay – essays, alley – alleys, survey – surveys, joy – joys.
Examples: Wife – wives, thief – thieves, loaf – loaves, half – halves, shelf – shelves, leaf – leaves, scarf – scarves, life – lives, calf – calves, elf – elves.
Examples: proof – proofs, belief – beliefs, motif – motifs, cliff – cliffs.
Examples: deer – deer, sheep – sheep, series – series, species – species, moose – moose, trout – trout.
Examples: foot – feet, child – children, mouse – mice, man – men, woman – women, ox-oxen, tooth – teeth.
NB: If you don’t figure out the correct spelling of a plural noun, look it up in a dictionary.
Exercise 6
What is the plural form of each of the following nouns? Example: scarf –scarves
Exercise 7
Write the plural form of each noun in brackets to complete each sentence correctly.
Example: I bought two ________________ from the shop. (loaf) loaves
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable Nouns
These are nouns that take plurals and can be counted.
Examples:
Egg – eggs One egg, three eggs , ten eggs
Potato – Potatoes Twenty potatoes
Onion – Onions Two hundred onions
Such nouns are known as COUNTABLE or COUNT NOUNS
Uncountable Nouns
These are nouns that do not take plurals and cannot be counted.
Examples : salt, butter, cooking fat, milk, bread, jam
We do not say:
Two butters*
Ten milks*
Three breads*
Such nouns are known as UNCOUNTABLE or MASS NOUNS
Exercise 8
Rewrite the words below in two columns, COUNTABLE and UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Orange Coffee
Furniture tea
Water gold
Chair team
Friend music
Plurals with uncountable Nouns
One way to express plurals of uncountable nouns is by use of expressions of quantity.
Example:
a piece of information – pieces of information
a loaf of bread – four loaves of bread
a tin of soup – three tins of soup
a piece of furniture – several pieces of furniture
a litre of milk – twenty litres of milk
a bottle of beer – ten bottles of beer
Exercise 9
Supply an appropriate expression of quantity for the following uncountable nouns
Collective Nouns
These are nouns that represent a group of people or things as a single unit.
Some collective nouns can take plural forms
Examples:
Crowd (s) flock (s)
Group (s) herd (s)
Team (s) committee (s)
Pair (s)
Some collective nouns, however, cannot be used in the plural:
Examples
Furniture* beddings*
Equipments* informations*
Luggages* baggages*
Exercise 10
When I arrived at the airport, there were ……………1………….. (crowd ) of people blocking the entrance with their ……………..2………………( luggage ).
Near the customs sections, several……………3……………..(group ) of officials were standing, checking the ………………4……………… (equipment ) that was being loaded onto a trolley. Most people were standing, waiting for… ………….5……………..(information ) from the loundspeakers onthe departures and arrivals of aircraft.
COMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. The words that form compound nouns may be joined together, separated or hyphenated.
Examples:
Joined: bookcase, blackboard, pushcart
Separated: high school, rabbit hutch, radar gun
Hyphenated: go-getter, mother-in-law, sergeant –at-arms
Compound nouns are usually a combination of two or moreword classes. The most common combinations are as follows;
Examples:
Tableroom (s) grassroot (s) prizefighter(s)
Cubboard (s) policeman/men rubber-stamp (s)
Bookcase(s) farmhouse (s) sanitary towel (s)
Cowshed (s) fruit machine (s) shoulder blade (s)
Examples:
Breakfast (s) push-up (s) rundown (s)
Takeaway (s) knockout (s) slip-up (s)
Sit-up (s) meltdown (s)
Examples:
Hotdog(s) polar bear(s) safe guard (s)
Blackboard(s) quicksand
Highway (s) remote control (s)
Nuclear power right angle (s)
Examples:
Driveway (s) playground (s) spend thrift (s)
Breakdance pushchair (s) go-getter (s)
Mincemeat screwdriver (s)
Password (s) spare wheel (s)
Examples:
Overdraft (s) overcoats (s) backyards (s)
Backbencher (s) undercoat (s ) backbone (s)
Backlog (s) underwear ( s) oversight ( s)
Examples:
Outbreak (s) Backlash ( s) Output ( s)
Outburst (s) Outcast (s) input (s)
Examples:
Nosedive (s)
Nightfall (s)
Examples:
Commander (s) – in- chief Sergeant (s) -at-arms
Mother(s)-in-laws sister(s)-in-law
Play(s)-within-play
Exercise 11
Underline the compound nouns in the following sentences and write down their plural forms where possible.
Possessive Nouns
A possessive noun shows who or what owns something. A possessive noun can either be singular or plural.
A singular possessive noun shows that one person, place, or thing has or owns something. To make a singular noun show possession, add an apostrophe and s (‘s).
Example: the feathers of the chick – the chick’s feathers
the hat that belongs to the man – the man’s hat
Other examples: the child’s toy
Mark’s bike
The fish’s fins
The horse’s tail
Using possessive nouns is shorter and better than other ways of showing possession.
Example:
LONGER: The dog belonging to Papa is barking.
BETTER: Papa’s dog is barking.
Plural Possessive Nouns
A plural possessive noun shows possession or ownership of a plural noun.
Example: The cars that belong to the teachers are parked here.
The teachers’ cars are parked here.
When a plural noun ends in s, add only an apostrophe after the s to make the noun show possession.
Not all plural nouns end in s. When a plural noun does not end in s, add ‘s to form the plural possession.
Examples: the shoes of the men – the men’s shoes
The food of the children – the children’s food
The noun following a possessive noun may either be the name of a thing or a quality.
Example: Thing – Koki’s raincoat
Brian’s umbrella
Quality – the judge’s fury
Bob’s courage
Exercise 8
Change the following phrases to show possession in a shorter way.
Example: the claws of the leopard
the leopard’s claws.
Summary of rules of forming Possessive Nouns
Example: Mr. Mukui’s car is a Toyota Corolla.
Example: The victim’s property was stolen
Example: The women’s boots were muddy.
Singular Noun Singular possessive Plural Noun Plural possessive
Noun Noun
boy boy’s boys boys’
child child’s children children’s
mouse mouse’s mice mice’s
deer deer’s deer deer’s
Exercise 9
Write the following phrases to show possession.
Example: teachers – pens = teachers’ pens
Exercise 10
Rewrite the following sentences changing the BOLD words to plural possessive nouns.
Example: The players on the teams practised after school.
The team’s players practised after school.
ANSWERS ON NOUNS
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Proper nouns Common nouns
July book
England face
Kendu Bay crocodiles
John Hopkins student
Johannesburg life
America business
East Africa day
calendar
Exercise 5
Common – singer
Common – dancer
Common – flight
Common – nurse
Common – accident
Exercise 6
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
Exercise 9
Exercise 10
PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a part of speech that takes the place of a noun. They include such words as I, we, he, she, thy, me and us.
Pronouns enable you to avoid repeating the same names (nouns), when writing or speaking, which would otherwise make you sound very awkward and wordy. By using pronouns effectively, you can make your writing and speaking flow smoothly.
Pronouns can be classified into 6 types. These are personal, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, reflexive and intensive pronouns.
2.1 Personal pronouns
A personal pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. They are used to refer to nouns that name persons or things.
Example:
Awkward Kamau put on Kamau’s gum boots. Then Kamau went to the shamba.
Improved Kamau put on his gum boots. Then he went to the shamba.
In the above example, the personal pronoun his helps the writer avoid repeating the same noun. The pronoun he acts as a bridge to connect the two sentences.
Personal pronouns are further classified in terms of person and gender.
Person
In terms of person, personal pronouns can be divided into three classes.
These ones refer to the person(s) speaking.
Example: I always ride my bike to school.
These refer to the person(s) spoken to.
Example: I will call you tomorrow.
These ones refer to another person(s) or thing(s) that is being spoken of.
The personal pronoun it usually replaces a noun that stands for a thing or an animal. It is never used in place of a person.
Gender
Personal pronouns can also be classified by gender. Gender can either be masculine (referring to male people), feminine (referring to female people) or neuter (referring to animals or things).
Examples:
Joseph cleaned his car. (His is the third person, masculine gender).
Isabel said the dress was hers (Hers is the third person, feminine gender).
The dog wagged its tail. (Its is the third person, neuter gender).
FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
In English, personal pronouns have three forms: the subject form, the object form and the possessive form.
Examples:
She is a painter (subject form)
He praised her. (Object form)
It is her best painting. (Possessive form)
Subject Pronouns
A subject pronoun takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence. These pronouns are:
Examples:
Noun Subject Pronoun
The housegirl takes care of the baby She takes care of the baby
The dog guards the house It guards the house
Mark and Francis love swimming They love swimming
Subject pronouns also appear after forms of the linking verbs be.
Examples:
The watchman today is he.
The composers were they.
Exercise 1
Underline the subject pronouns in the following sentences.
Example: She ate a water melon
Exercise 2
Replace the underlined words with subject pronouns.
Example: Pio and Gama are friends – They
Object pronouns
Object pronouns can replace nouns used after action verbs. These pronouns are:
Examples:
The driver drove him. (direct object)
The parents thanked us. (direct object)
The reporters asked him many questions. (indirect object)
In the above examples, the personal pronouns are the direct or indirect objects of the verbs before them.
Object pronouns can also replace nouns after prepositions such as to, for, with, in, at or by. That is, they can be objects of prepositions.
Examples:
Gladys waved to them. (object of a preposition)
The delivery is for me.
Ben went with them to the theatre.
Exercise 3
Choose the correct pronoun in the brackets in the following sentences.
Example: Irungu photographed (us, we). = us
Possessive pronouns
A possessive pronoun shows ownership.
Example: My pen is black.
There are two kinds of possessive pronouns:
Singular: My, your, his, her, its
Plural: Our, your, their
Examples: My shirt is yellow.
Your food is on the table.
His bag is green.
This is her dress.
Its fur is soft.
These are our parents.
Pay your bills.
They removed their bats.
The above possessive pronouns always appear before nouns to modify them. Hence, they are called modifiers.
Singular: mine yours his, hers, its
Plural: ours yours, their
Examples: The yellow shirt is mine.
The food on the table is yours.
The green bag is his.
This dress is hers.
Its is the soft fur.
These crops are ours.
These bills are yours.
Those hats are theirs.
Exercise 4
Complete the following sentences by choosing the correct possessive pronoun from the brackets.
Example: The lazy girl completed (her, hers) home work. = her.
POINTS TO NOTE
Examples:
Subject: I travel by bus
After the linking verb be: Yesterday, the prefects on duty were Victor and I
Examples:
Object: Rose met me at the gate.
After prepositions: Rose waited for me at the gate.
You are coming with me.
Examples:
Diana and I visited our grandmother yesterday.
Who appointed Chege and me?
Rose waited for her and me at the gate.
CONTRACTIONS WITH PRONOUNS
A contraction is a shortened form of two words. One or more letters are omitted and an apostrophe (’) is used in place of the letters left out.
A contraction is formed by combining pronouns and the verbs am, is, are, will, would, have, has, and had.
Pronoun + verb Contraction Pronoun + verb Contraction
I am I’m I have I’ve
He is he’s he has he’s
It is it’s it has it’s
You are you’re you have you’ve
They are they’re they have they’ve
I will I’ll I had I’d
You will you’ll you had you’d
We would we’d we had we’d
Note:
Examples: he is, he has = he’s
we had, we would = we’d
Examples:
Possessive pronouns Contractions
its it’s
your you’re
their they’re
whose who’s
Incorrect: The team celebrated it’s victory.
Correct: The team celebrated its victory.
Incorrect: Your late for the preps.
Correct: You’re late for the preps.
Incorrect: Whose the fastest runner in the world?
Correct: Who’s the fastest runner in the world?
Rules of using possessive pronouns and contractions correctly
Exercise 5
Write the contractions for the following word pairs. Example: It has = it’s
Exercise 6
What pronoun and verb make up each of the following contractions?
Example: It’s = it is, it has
Exercise 7
Choose the correct word given in brackets in the following sentences.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that does not refer to a specific person or thing.
In English, there are singular indefinite pronouns, plural indefinite and both singular and plural indefinite pronouns.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns
another anything everybody neither one
anybody each everyone nobody somebody
anymore either everything no one someone.
An indefinite pronoun must agree with its verbs and in number with its possessive pronoun. The above indefinite pronouns are used with singular verbs. They are also used with singular possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Agreement with verbs
Correct: Everyone has heard of Lake Turkana.
Incorrect: Everyone have heard of Lake Turkana.
Correct: Nobody knows what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Incorrect: Nobody know what happened to Samuel Wanjiru.
Correct: Everything about the old man remains a mystery.
Incorrect: Everything about the old man remain a mystery.
Agreement in number with possessive pronouns
Correct: Neither believed his/her eyes.
Incorrect: Neither believed their eyes.
Correct: Each strained his/her neck to see.
Incorrect: Each strained their neck to see.
Plural indefinite pronouns
both many few several
These indefinite pronouns use plural verbs and possessive pronouns.
Examples:
Plural verbs
Correct: Few know about Lake Olbolsat.
Incorrect: Few knows about Lake Obolsat.
Correct: Both stand by what they believe.
Incorrect: Both stands by what they believe.
Plural possessive pronouns
Correct: Several reported their findings.
Incorrect: Several reported his/her findings.
Both singular and plural indefinite pronouns
all some any none
These indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural, depending on their meaning in the sentence.
Examples:
All of my story is true – singular
All of the guests are here – plural
None of the lake is foggy – singular
None of the photos are spoiled – plural.
EXERCISE 8
Underline the indefinite pronouns in the following sentences and then write the correct form of the verb or possessive pronoun in the brackets.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
A demonstrative pronoun is used to single or point out one or more persons or things referred to in the sentence.
These pronouns are this, that, these, and those.
This and these point to persons or things that are near.
Examples:
This is a gazelle.
These are the students of Kianjege West Secondary School.
That and those point to persons or things that are farther away.
Examples:
That is the city square.
Those are the lodging rooms.
This and that are used with singular nouns.
These and those are used with plural nouns.
Exercise 9
Pick the correct demonstrate pronouns from the choices given in the brackets in the following sentences.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. These pronouns are who, whose, whom, which and what.
Examples:
Who is the mayor of this town?
Whose is the red car?
Which is her blouse?
What did she ask you?
Whom should I trust with my secret?
USING WHO, WHOM, AND WHOSE
Who, whom, and whose are often used to ask questions. Hence, they are interrogative pronouns.
WHO is the subject form. It is used as the subject of a verb.
Examples:
Who taught you how to play the guitar? (Who is the subject of the verb taught.)
WHOM is the object form. It is used as the direct object of a verb or as the object of a preposition.
Examples:
Whom did you meet? (Whom is the object of the verb did meet).
For whom is this trophy? (whom is the object of the preposition for).
WHOSE is the possessive form. It can be used :
Example:
Whose is umbrella is this? (whose modifies the noun umbrella)
Examples:
Whose are those water melons? (whose is the subject of the verb are)
Whose did you admire? (whose is the object of the verb did admire)
Exercise 10
Pick the correct interrogative pronouns from the brackets in the following sentences.
Exercise 11
Complete the following sentences with who, whom, or whose.
REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive and intensive pronouns end in –self or –selves. These are myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, and themselves.
There is, however, one difference between reflexive and Intensive pronouns.
A reflexive pronoun refers to an action performed by the subject of the sentence. The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun.
Examples:
Monicah bought herself a new dress. (The meaning of the sentence is incomplete without the reflexive pronoun because we do not know for whom Monicah bought the dress).
An Intensive pronoun is used to emphasise a noun or a pronoun. It does not add information to a sentence, and it can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence.
I myself pulled the boy out of the river. (If you remove myself, the meaning of the sentence does not change)
Exercise 12
Identify the Reflexive and Intensive pronouns in the following sentences, labelling them accordingly.
SPECIAL PRONOUNS PROBLEMS
We all know that every sentence must have a subject. Sometimes we incorrectly use a double subject – a noun and a pronoun – to name the same person, place, or thing.
Incorrect Correct
Jane she is my cousin. Jane is my cousin.
She is my cousin.
Her scarf it is pretty. Her scarf is pretty.
It is pretty.
Jane and she should not be used as subjects together.
The subject her scarf should not be used together with it.
Use only a noun or a pronoun to name a subject.
The antecedent of a pronoun is a noun or another pronoun for which the pronoun stands.
A personal pronoun, you will remember, is used in place or a noun. The noun is the word to which the pronouns refer and it is therefore its antecedent.
The noun usually comes first, either in the same sentence or in the sentence before it.
Examples:
We met Mureithi. He is the medical doctor.
(He stands for Mureithi. Mureithi is the antecedent).
The students had come to school with their mobile phones.
(Their stands for students. Students is the antecedent).
Pronouns may be the antecedents of other pronouns.
Examples:
Does everybody have his booklet?
(everybody, which is a singular indefinite pronoun, is the antecedent of his).
All of the students have brought theirs.
(All, which is a plural indefinite pronoun, is the antecedent of theirs).
Now, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Agree here means that the pronoun must be the same in number as its antecedent.
The word number means singular or plural.
If the pronoun is singular, the word that it stands for must be singular, and it must be plural if the word it stands for is plural.
Examples:
Correct: The scientists tested their new discovery
(Scientists is plural; their is plural.)
Incorrect: The scientists tested his new discovery.
Correct: Mr. Kiama turned on his TV.
(Mr Kiama is singular; his is singular)
Correct: Nobody left her workstation
(Nobody is singular, her is singular)
NB: When the antecedent refers to both males and females, it is best to use the phrase his or her.
Phrases such as we students and us girls are often incorrectly used. To tell which pronoun to use, drop the noun and say the sentence without it.
Problem: (We, Us) boys study hard.
Solution: We study hard = We boys study hard.
Problem: The DC praised (us, we) students.
Solution: The DC praised us = The DC praised us students
The word them is always a pronoun. It is always used as the object of a verb or a preposition, never as a subject.
Examples:
Correct: The president greeted them (direct object of the verb greeted)
Correct: She gave them a Sandwich (Indirect object of the verb gave)
Correct: The information was useful to them (object of the preposition to)
Incorrect: Them they arrived late.
Although we previously said that those is used as a demonstrative pronouns, it is sometimes used as an adjective i.e. a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. If a noun appears immediately after it, those is now an adjective, not a pronoun.
Examples:
Those are the new desks that were bought. (Those is a pronoun, the subject of the verb are).
Those desks are attractive. (Those is an adjective modifying the noun desks).
Exercise 13
Each of the following sentences has a double subject. Write each correctly.
Exercise 14
Pick the correct pronoun in the brackets in the following sentences.
ANSWERS ON PRONOUNS
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
Exercise 9
Exercise 10
Exercise 11
Exercise 12
Exercise 13
Exercise 14
VERBS
A verb is a word that:
Hence, there are two kinds of verbs. These are action verbs and linking verbs.
ACTION VERBS
Action verbs express actions. They show what the subject does or did. Most verbs are action verbs.
Examples:
Cats drink milk.
The ball flew over the goal post.
The farmer tills the land.
Robert ran to the house.
The action may be one that you can see.
Example:
They crowned their new King.
The action may be one that you cannot see.
Example:
She wanted recognition.
Whether the action can be seen or not, an action verb says that something is happening, has happened, or will happen.
LINKING VERBS
A linking verb links the subject of a sentence with a word or words that :
Example:
She is here. (expresses state of being)
She seems ready. (state of being)
Examples:
Anna is a nurse (a nurse, describes Anna)
Joyce is cheerful (cheerful describes Joyce)
The road is bumpy.
A linking verb does not tell about an action.
Common linking verbs
am look grow
are feel remain
is taste become
was smell sound
were seem
will be appear
NB: Some verbs can be either linking verbs or action verbs.
Examples:
The crowd looked at the mangled car – ACTION
The driver of the car looked shocked – LINKING
The chef smelled the food – ACTION
The food smelled wonderful – LINKING
EXERCISE 1
Identify the verb in each of the following sentences. Then label each verb Action or Linking.
VERB PHRASES
In some sentences, the verb is more than one word. It is in form of a phrase, which is called a verb phrase.
A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs.
The main verb shows the action in the sentence.
The helping verb works with the main verb. Helping verbs do not show action.
Examples:
Mark Francis has passed the examinations
H.V. M.V.
He will be admitted to a national school.
H.V. H.V. M.V.
His parents are happy with him.
H.V. M.V.
Common helping verbs
am will can would
is shall could must
are have may
was has should
were had might
Some verbs, such as do, have and be, can either be used as main verbs or as helping verbs.
Examples:
As main verbs As helping verbs
I will do the job I do like the job.
Who has a pen? He has lost his pen.
They are my friends They are coming today.
Sometimes helping verbs and main verbs are separated by words that are not verbs.
Examples:
I do not ride bicycle any more.
Can we ever be friends again?
We should definitely apologise for the mistakes.
Exercise 2
Indicate H.V. under the Helping verb and M.V. under the Main verb in the following sentences.
VERBS TENSES
The time of an action or the state of being is expressed by different forms of the verb. These forms are called the tenses of the verb.
There are three main forms of a verb: the present, the past, or the future.
The Present Tense
A verb which is in present tense indicates what the subject of the sentence is doing right now.
Example:
The teacher sees the students.
The verb sees tells that the teacher is seeing the students now. To show the present tense, an -s or -es is added to most verbs if the subject is singular.
If the subject is plural, or I or You, the -s, or -es is not added.
Example:
The bird hatches in the nest.
The stream flows down the hill.
The boys rush for their breakfast.
We talk a lot.
Rules for forming the Present Tense with Singular Subjects
play – plays
eat – eats
punch-punches, buzz – buzzes
push – pushes
change the y to i and add –es try – tries
empty – empties
Exercise 3
Write the correct present form of each verb in the brackets in the following sentences.
The Past Tense
A verb which is in past tense shows what has already happened.
Example:
Tito liked his grandmother’s story.
The verb liked tells that the action in the sentence happened before now.
Rules for forming the Past Tense
talk – talked
climb – climbed
hope – hoped
wipe – wiped
the y to i and add –ed carry – carried
study – studied
a consonant: Double the final consonant man – manned
and add-ed trip – tripped
Exercise 4
Write the past tense forms of each of the verbs in brackets in the following sentences.
The Future Tense
A verb which is in future tense tells what is going to happen.
Examples:
Evans will take his car to the garage.
She will probably come with us.
The verbs will take and will come tell us what is going to happen. Hence, they are in future tense.
To form the future tense of a verb, use the helping verb will or shall with the main verb.
Exercise 5
Write the future tense forms of the verbs in the following sentences.
More Tenses
The above three forms of tenses can further be divided into:
– Past simple tense
– Future simple tense
– Present perfect progressive
– Past perfect tense
– Future perfect
– Future perfect progressive
– Past progressive tense
– Progressive tense
– Future perfect progressive tense.
The simple Tenses
The most common tenses of the verb are the simple tenses. You use them most often in your speaking and writing.
Look at the following sentences.
All the above sentences contain a verb in the present simple tense. This tense is used for different purposes.
Example: I know Kisumu.
Example: He goes to school everyday.
Example: The sun rises from the east.
Exercise 6
Complete the following sentences putting the verbs in brackets in the present simple tense.
The past simple tense is used when an action has been completed .
Examples:
We cleaned our classrooms yesterday.
He drove the car this morning.
She planned the whole incident.
Exercise 7
Write down the past simple tense of the following words and then use each of them in sentences of your own.
start breathe
add roam
trap obey
annoy worry
pity fit
The future simple tense places the action or condition in the future. It is formed by using the word shall or will before the present form of the main verb.
Examples:
We shall need help with her load.
She will eat the bananas alone
The dancers will entertain them.
Exercise 8
Use the following words in future simple tense in sentences of your own.
see develop
go begin
exist consume
introduce hunt
bring become
The Perfect Tenses
The perfect tenses are used to show that an action was completed or that a condition existed before a given time.
The perfect tenses are formed using has, have, or had before the past participles i.e. verb forms ending in -ed.
Examples:
Ceasar has just finished his homework.
Kamau and Njoroge have now agreed to meet.
Kibet has been working in his shamba for two hours.
We have been swimming in this pool for ten minutes.
We had completed the work by the time the supervisor came.
Nobody knew that she had already remarried.
I had been trying to contact him for two hours before he finally appeared.
Mrs. Masumbuko had been feeling unwell the whole week before she decided to visit a doctor.
Agege will have sold his goats by two p.m.
By next term, twenty students will have dropped from this school.
The players will have been playing for twenty minutes by the time the President arrives.
By the end of this term, she will have been living with her aunt for five years.
Exercise 9
Rewrite the following sentences changing the verb into present perfect, present perfect progressive, past perfect, past perfect progressive, future perfect and future perfect progressive tenses. Make any necessary changes to make the sentences meaningful.
John comes here every year.
The Progressive Verb Forms
The progressive form of the verb shows continuing action.
Examples:
I am singing
She was dancing.
The progressive form is formed using various forms of the verb be plus the present participle i.e. a verb form that ends in –ing.
Examples:
I am reading a book about Red Indians.
Her mother is preparing dinner.
He has been cleaning his car since morning.
They have been exercising for a week now.
She was cooking supper when I arrived.
They were fighting fiercely when the police arrived.
Sonko had been wearing an earing for years before he removed it.
Onyancha had been killing children before he was finally discovered.
He will be tilling the land next week.
Joyce and Joan will be washing clothes all morning.
The children will have been sleeping for two hours by the time their parents arrive.
John will have grown a beard by the time he is twelve.
Exercise 10
Rewrite the following sentence changing the verb into present progressive, present perfect progressive, past progressive, past perfect progressive, future progressive and future perfect progressive tenses. Make any necessary changes to make the sentences meaningful.
Jane plays the guitar well.
SUBJECT – VERB AGREEMENT
Present tense
A verb and its subject must agree in number. To agree means that if the subject is singular, the verb must be in singular form. If the subject is plural, the verb form must be plural.
Examples:
The baby cries every morning – SINGULAR
The babies cry every morning – PLURAL
Rules for subject-verb Agreement
Add -s or -es to the verb She teaches in a primary school.
He studies his map.
Do not add -s or -es They teach in primary schools.
to the verb We study our maps.
Do not add -s or -es to the verb You like dogs.
I admire actors.
When a sentence has a compound subject i.e. two subjects joined by and, the plural form of the verb is used.
Examples:
John and James work at Naivas Supermarket.
The teachers and the students respect one another a lot.
Subject-verb Agreement with be and have
The verbs be and have change their forms in special ways in order to agree with their subjects.
Various ways in which be and have change in order to agree with their subjects.
| Subject | Be | Have | |
| 1.
| Singular subjects: I You He, she, it Singular Noun | am, was are, were is, was is, was | have, had have, had has, had has, had |
| 2. | Plural subjects: We You They Plural Noun | are, were are, were are, were are, were
| have, had have, had have, had have, had
|
Exercise 11
Put appropriate Present tense verbs in the blank spaces in the following sentences. Ensure that the subject agrees with the verb and that the sentence makes sense.
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
We have learned in previous chapter how to form the past tense and how to use helping verbs to show that something has already happened. We saw that for most verbs, we form the past tense and participles by adding -d or -ed to the verb. Verbs that follow this rule are called Regular Verbs.
Examples:
The framer planted his crops last month. – past tense
The crops have been planted recently. – past participle.
For all regular verbs, the past and the past participles are spelled alike. They are made up by adding -d or -ed to the present form of the verb.
Examples:
| Present | Past | Past Participles |
| help rescue rush support play talk live | helped rescued rushed supported played talked lied | had helped had rescued had rushed had supported had played had talked had lied |
The spelling of many regular verbs changes when –d or -ed is added i.e. the last consonant is doubled before adding -d or -ed. For those ending -y, it is dropped and replaced with –i:
Examples:
| Present | Past | Past Participles |
| hop drug permit knit cry carry | hopped drugged permitted knitted cried carried | (had) hopped (had) drugged (had) permitted (had) knitted (had) cried (had) carried |
Exercise 12
Write the present, past and past participles of the following verbs. Remember to change the spelling appropriately where necessary.
Irregular Verbs
Some verbs do not form the past by adding -d or –ed. These verbs are called irregular verbs. There are only about sixty frequently used irregular verbs. For many of these, the past and the past participles are spelled the same but some are different.
Examples:
He saw great misery all around him – past
He has seen great misery all round him – past participle
Common irregular Verbs
| Verb | Past tense | Past participles |
| begin choose go speak ride fight throw come sing steal swim make run grow write ring drink lie do eat know | began chose went spoke rode fought threw came sang stole swam made ran grew wrote rang drank lay did ate knew
| ( had) begun (had) chosen (had) gone (had) spoken (had) ridden (had) fought (had) thrown (had) came (had) sung (had) stolen (had) swum (had) made (had) run (had) grown (had) written (had) rung (had) drunk (had) lain (had) done (had) eaten (had) known |
For a few irregular verbs, like hit and cut, the three principal parts are spelled the same. These ones offer no problems to learners. Most problems come from irregular verbs with three different forms. For example, the irregular verbs throw and ring.
Throw threw had thrown
Ring rang had rung
If you are not sure about a verb form, look it up in the dictionary.
Exercise 13
Write the past tense and past participles of the following irregular verbs and then use each of them in sentences of your own.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERB FORMS
Active Voice
A verb is in active voice when the subject of the sentence performs the action.
Examples:
Our teacher punished us for making noise in class.
Subject action
Players arrived for their first match early in the morning.
Subject action
In the above sentences, the subject is who performed the action. Hence, the verbs of these sentences are in active voice.
Passive voice
The word passive means “acted upon”. When the subject of the sentence receives the action or expresses the result of the action, the verb is in passive voice.
Examples:
We were punished by the teacher for making noise.
Subject action
He was helped by a passer-by.
Subject action
In the above sentences the subjects we and he receive the action.
When we do not know who or what did the action, or when we do not want to say who or what did it, we use the passive voice.
The passive form of a verb consists of some form of be plus the past participle.
Examples:
Active Passive
Baabu explored the sea. The sea was explored by Baabu.
Be + past participle
The captain helped him. He was helped by the captain.
Be+past participle
Exercise 14
Write the verbs from the following sentences and then label each one Active or Passive.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS
Some sentences express a complete thought with only a subject and an action verb.
Example:
The sun shines.
Subject Active verb
In other sentences, a direct object must follow the action verb for the sentence to be complete. A direct object is a noun or a pronoun that receives the action of the verb.
Example:
The goalkeeper caught the ball.
Subject action verb direct object
Transitive verbs
A Transitive verb is an action verb that must take a direct object for the sentence to express a complete thought. A direct object answers the question what? or whom?
Examples:
The captain steered the ship. (Steered what? the ship)
The teacher praised the students. (Praised whom? The students)
Transitive verbs cannot be used alone without direct objects in sentences; they would not have complete meanings.
Exercise 15
What are the action verbs and the direct objects in the following sentences?
Intransitive verbs
An Intransitive verb is an action verb that does not require a direct object for the sentence to have complete meaning.
Examples:
The ship sailed.
Subject action verb
The child smiled.
Subject action verb
They do not answer the questions what? or whom? Sometimes they answer the questions how? or how often?
Examples:
The ship sailed smoothly. (How did it sail? Smoothly)
The child smiled repeatedly. (How often did the child smile? Repeatedly)
Both transitive and intransitive verbs
Some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively.
Examples:
We cheered our team noisily. (Transitive)
We cheered noisily. (Intransitive)
He broke the window pane. (Transitive)
The glass broke. (Intransitive)
NB: Only transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive voice.
Examples:
Active Passive
He kicked the ball The ball was kicked by him
She bought a new dress A new dress was bought by her.
She wailed loudly ??
They danced well ??
Exercise 16
Indicate at the end of each of the following sentences whether the underlined verb is Transitive or Intransitive.
TROUBLESOME PAIRS OF VERBS
Some pairs of verbs confuse learners of English because their meanings are related but not the same. Others confuse them because they sound similar, but their meanings are different. Others are similar in appearance but different in meanings.
| The pairs | Meaning | Present tense | Past tense | Past participle | Examples of its usage | |
| 1 | Sit
set | To be in a seated position To put or place | Sit
set | Sat
set | Sat
set | Sit on that chair.
Set the cage down. |
| 2. | Lie
lay | To rest in a flat position To put or place | Lie
lay | Lay
laid | lain
laid | The cat lies on the table. Lay the cloth on the table.
|
| 3. | rise raise | To move upward To move something upward or to lift | rise
raise | rose
raised | risen
raised | The children rise up early in the morning. The scout raised the flag. |
| 4. | let leave | To allow or permit To depart or to allow to remain where it is | let leave | let left | let left | Let the bird go free. Leave this house now! Leave the door closed. |
| 5. | Learn
Teach | To gain knowledge or skill To help someone learn or to show how or explain | Learn
teach | Learned
taught | Learned
taught | I learned a lot in school. That teacher taught me in Biology. |
| 6. | Can
may | To be able
To be allowed | I can ride my bike well. You may go out. |
EXERCISE 17
Pick the correct verb from the ones given in brackets in the following sentences.
ANSWERS ON VERBS
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Helping verb Main verb
10 will go
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
Exercise 9
Exercise 10
Exercise 11
Exercise 12
Present Past Past participle
Exercise 13
Present Past Past participle
Exercise 14
Exercise 15
Action verbs direct object
Exercise 16
Exercise 17
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes or modifies a noun or a pronoun. To describe or modify means to provide additional information about nouns or pronouns. To modify further means to change something slightly.
Writers and speakers modify an idea or image by choosing certain describing words, which are called adjectives. Hence, these adjectives are also called modifiers. Adjectives are like word cameras. They are words that describe colours, sizes and shapes. Adjectives help you capture how the world around you looks and feels.
Adjectives tell:
Examples:
The powerful gorilla knocked down the hunter.
The old man walked slowly.
Examples:
Three zebras were resting.
He has few friends.
Examples:
This painting is attractive.
These farmers are clearing the field.
There are 4 main kinds of adjectives, namely:-
Descriptive adjectives
Descriptive adjectives tell us the size, shape, age, colour, weight, height, make, nature and origin of the nouns they are describing.
Examples of descriptive Adjectives:
| Size | Shape | Age | Colour | Weight | Height | Make | Nature | Origin |
| big huge small tiny thin fat wide shallow slender | oval circular triangular rectangular round square twisted pointed
| old young aged | red green white blue brown black maroon purple pink | heavy light | tall short
| wooden plastic metal stony glass mud | warm cold shy famous peaceful brave powerful gentle kind | Kenya American Tanzania Italian South African Ugandan Korean
|
Descriptive adjective are of two types.
Examples of proper adjectives:
The Japanese ambassador
A Mexican carpet
An Italian chef
Note that when a proper adjective comprises of two words, both are capitalized.
Examples:
A South African farmer
A North American cowboy
Exercise 1
Find the adjectives in the following sentences and indicate what types they are.
Demonstrative Adjectives
A demonstrative adjective tells which one or which ones. They are used before nouns and other adjectives.
There are 4 demonstrative adjectives in English: This, that, these and those.
This and these are used to refer to nouns close to the speaker or writer. That and those refer to nouns farther away. This and that are used before singular nouns while these and those are used before plural nouns.
Examples:
This picture is very beautiful.
Singular noun
That one is not as beautiful.
Singular noun
These drawings are very old.
Plural noun
Those ones were painted in Uganda.
Plural noun.
Exercise 2
Choose the word in brackets that correctly completes each of the following sentences.
10.(These, Those) goats grazing over there are my uncle’s.
Definite and indefinite adjectives
These are adjectives which tell how many or how much. They give the number or the quantity, either specific or approximate, of the noun in question. They are also referred to as numerals
Examples:
Three elephants were killed by the game rangers.
He bought several houses in Kileleshwa.
Don’t put much sugar in the tea!
More examples of numerals
| Numbers | Amount | Approximate |
| Three Ten Five Hundred Twenty
| Much All Some Any Few | Several Some Little Many Few Each Every Numerous |
Adjectives that are in form of numbers are used with countable nouns:
Examples:
Two calves were born yesterday.
Five chimpanzees performed funny tricks.
Many children like dinosaurs.
A definite or indefinite adjective may look like a pronoun, but it is used differently in a sentence. It is an adjective used to modify a noun.
Adjectives that are in farm of quantity are used with uncountable nouns.
Examples:
Do you have any water in the house?
How much flour did you buy?
Interrogative Adjectives
The interrogative adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions. Examples are what, which, and whose.
Examples:
What movie do you want to see?
Which leaves tern colour first?
Whose son is he?
An interrogative adjective may look like an interrogative pronoun but it is used differently. It is an adjective, used to modify a noun.
Exercise 3
Underline the adjectives in the following sentences.
Articles and Possessive Pronouns
Two special kinds of adjectives are the articles and the possessive pronouns.
Articles
Articles are the words a, an and the. A and an are special adjectives called indefinite articles. They are used when the nouns they modify do not refer to any particular thing.
Examples:
A student rang the bells (no specific student)
An orange is good for you health. (no specific orange)
A is used before a noun that begins with a consonant sound. An is used before a noun that begins with a vowel sound. Note that it is the first sound of a noun, not the spelling, that determines whether to use a or an.
Examples:
An hour an heir
A hall
The is a special adjective known as the definite article. It is used to refer to particular things.
Examples:
The tourist was robbed. (a particular tourist).
The team began practising at 8 o’clock (a particular team).
All articles are adjectives. The is used with both singular and plural nouns, but a and an are used with singular nouns
Examples:
The tourist, the tourists, a tourist
The adjective, the adjectives, an adjective
Exercise 4
Choose the correct article from the choices given in brackets in the following sentences.
Possessive Pronouns
The words my, her, its, our and their are possessive pronouns, but they can also be used as adjectives. These modifiers tell which one, which ones or whose?
Examples:
My brother likes Sean Paul, but his sister does not.
Of his songs, ever blazing is his favourite.
Our school produces heroes, its fame is widespread.
Exercise 5
Write the adjectives from the following sentences and the nouns they modify.
Position of adjectives in sentences
Descriptive: The beautiful house belongs to my uncle.
Demonstrative: That house belongs to my uncle.
Numerals: Two houses were burned down.
Articles: The house on fire belongs to her sister.
Possessive pronouns: Their house was burned down.
Some adjectives appear after the nouns that they are modifying. These adjectives are always used after linking verbs that separate them from the words they modify. An adjective that follows a linking verb and that modifies the subject is called a predicate adjective.
Examples:
Joyce seemed lonely.
Her brother was upset.
He became concerned.
Exercise 6
Identify the predicate adjectives in the following sentences.
COMPARING WITH ADJECTIVES
We have seen that adjectives describe nouns. One way in which they describe nouns is by comparing people, places or things.
To compare two people, places or things, we use the comparative form of an adjective. To compare more than two, we use the superlative form of the adjective.
Examples:
ONE PERSON: Kimenju is tall.
TWO PERSONS: Kimenju is taller than James.
THREE OR MORE: Kimenju is the tallest of all.
The comparative
The comparative form of the adjective is used to compare one thing, person or place with another one. It is formed in two ways.
Examples:
great + er = greater sweet + er = sweeter
big + er = bigger light + er = lighter.
Examples:
More handsome more remarkable
More attractive more hardworking
Most adjectives ending in –ful and –ous also form the comparative using more.
Examples:
More successful more curious more ferocious
More beautiful more generous more prosperous
The superlative
The superlative form of the adjective is used to compare a person, a place or a thing with more than one other of its kind.
Examples:
Elephants are the largest animals in the jungle.
However, they are the most emotional animals.
The superlative form of an adjective is formed in two ways.
Examples:
great + est = greatest sweet + est = sweetest
big + est = biggest light + est = light
Examples:
most mysterious most awkward
most successful most attractive
The ending -er in the comparative becomes -est in the superlative while more becomes most.
Adjective comparative superlative
strong stronger strongest
quick quicker quickest
adventurous more adventurous most adventurous
co-operative more co-operative most co-operative
Summary of rules comparing with adjectives:
| Rule | Examples | |
| 1. | For most short adjectives: Add -er or -est to the adjective | bright dark smart bright darker smarter brightest darkest smartest |
| 2. | For adjectives ending with e: Drop the e and add -er or -est | safe nice wide safer nicer wider safest nicest widest
|
| 3. | For adjectives ending with a consonant and y: Change the y to i and add -er or -est | busy crazy happy busier crazier happier busiest craziest happiest |
| 4. | For single-syllable adjectives ending with a single vowel and a consonant: Double the last consonant and add -er or -est | flat slim fat flatter slimmer fatter flattest slimmest fattest |
| 5. | For most adjectives with two or more syllables: Use more or most | careful generous more careful more generous most careful most generous |
Points to note about Adjectives:
Examples:
A rat is smaller than a mouse.
Buffaloes are larger than domestic cows
Examples:
Lions are the bravest of all animals.
Elephants are the largest of all herbivores.
Examples:
Leopards are more ferocious than any other cat.
Incorrect: Men die more earlier than women.
Correct: Men die earlier than women.
Incorrect: My father is the most oldest of the three brothers.
Correct: My father is the oldest of the three brothers.
Exercise 7
Write the adjectives in brackets in the following sentences correctly.
Irregular comparisons
Some adjectives have special forms for making comparisons. i.e. they do not form their comparatives by use of –er or more, or their superlatives by use of –est or most. Instead, these adjectives change the words completely to form comparatives and superlatives.
Examples:
Adjectives Comparative Superlative
good better best
well better best
bad worse worst
ill worse worst
little less or lesser least
much more most
many more most
far farther farthest
Example of use in sentences:
The presentation of our play was good.
Our second performance was better.
But our last performance was the best.
Exercise 8
Write the correct forms of the adjectives in brackets in the following sentences.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS WITH ADJECTIVES
Those is an adjective if it followed by a noun. It is a pronoun if it is used alone.
Examples:
Those thieves are daring! (adjective modifying thieves)
Those are thieves! (pronoun)
Them is always a pronoun. It is used only as the object of a verb or as the object of a preposition. It is never used as an adjective.
Examples:
We followed them. (object of a verb)
They caught one of them. (object of a preposition)
We heard them thieves breaking the door. (incorrect)
It is incorrect to use the demonstrative adjectives this, that, those, and these with here and there before the nouns they modify.
Examples:
“This here job”
“That there house”
“These here books”
“Those there carpets”
The adjectives this and these include the meaning of here whereas the adjectives that and those include the meaning of there. Saying this here is like repeating oneself.
Kind and sort are singular and hence should be used with singular demonstrative adjectives this and that.
Examples:
I like this kind of story.
She likes that sort of food.
Kinds and sorts are plural and should be used with plural demonstrative adjectives these and those.
Examples:
Those sorts of horror movies scare me.
These kinds of sports are for strong people.
Exercise 9
Choose the correct adjectives from the ones given in brackets in the following sentences.
ANSWERS ON ADJECTIVES
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
Exercise 9
ADVERBS
An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
Adverb tell how, when, or where, or to what extent an action happens.
Examples:
HOW: The man walked quickly.
WHEN: It will rain soon.
WHERE: We shall meet here at 2 p.m.
TO WHAT EXTENT: He is extremely rude.
Other examples:
HOW WHEN WHERE TO WHAT EXTENT
happily sometimes underground fully
secretly later here extremely
together tomorrow there quite
carefully now inside very
sorrowfully finally far rarely
painfully again upstairs
fast often downstairs
hard once somewhere
slowly first forward
hurriedly next behind
quietly then above
Adverbs used to describe verbs
Adverbs that describe verbs tell how, when, where and to what extent an action happened.
Examples:
HOW: John waited patiently for his turn.
WHEN: He is now walking into the office.
WHERE: He will eat his lunch there.
TO WHAT EXTENT: He is very pleased with himself.
Adverbs make the meaning of the verb clearer.
Example:
He will eat his lunch. (without adverb)
He will eat his lunch there. (The adverb makes it clear where the action of eating will take place.)
Exercise 1
Write the adverbs in the following sentences and then indicate whether the adverb tells how, when, where, or to what extent.
Adverbs used to describe adjectives
Adverbs that tell to what extent can be used to describe adjectives.
Examples:
The cave was very dark.
adv adj
The tea was extremely hot.
Adv adj
Other adverbs used with adjectives
just nearly somewhat most
These adverbs make the adjectives they are describing more understandable and precise.
Example:
The tomb was dark. (without adverb)
The tomb was fully dark. (The adverb fully describes the extent of the darkness).
Exercise 2
Identify the adverb in each of the following sentences and then indicate the adjective it describes.
Adverbs used to describe other adverbs
Some adverbs that tell to what extent are used to describe other adverbs.
Examples:
The student spoke very softly.
adv adv
The cold subsided very gradually.
adv adv
These adverbs make the adverbs they are describing more understandable and clear.
Examples:
She spoke rudely. (without adjective modifier)
She spoke extremely rudely. (extremely describes the extent of her rudeness).
Exercise 3
Identify the adverbs modifying other adverbs in the following sentences.
Specific categories of Adverbs
Examples:
He joined the class yesterday.
Today, I will go to the cinema.
Examples:
Mrs. Kilome has gone out.
The bus stop is near the post office.
Examples:
She often leaves without permission.
He always works hard.
Examples:
Many ran fast to catch the bus
He painted the house badly.
Examples:
Luka is extremely intelligent.
She is very ill.
FORMATION OF ADVERBS
Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective.
Examples:
Slow + -ly = slowly quiet + -ly = quietly
Sometimes the addition of -ly to an adjective may require changing the spelling in the adjective.
Examples:
Easy + -ly = easily (y changes to i)
Full + -ly = fully (ll changes to l)
Other adverbs are complete words on their own. That is, they are not formed from other words.
Examples:
fast tomorrow soon first later
next inside somewhere quite
Note:
Examples:
The school will soon open.
The holiday was quite well spent.
Examples:
The visitors arrived late. (adverb)
The late arrivals delayed the meeting (adjective)
The robbers had gotten there first. (adverb)
The first house was already broken into. (adjective)
If it goes with an action verb, an adjective or another adverb, it is an adverb.
Examples:
The story teller spoke quietly. – used with an action verb.
The story teller was very interesting. – used with an adjective.
The story letter spoke extremely slowly. –used with another adverb.
But if it goes with a noun or a pronoun, it is an adjective.
Examples:
The quiet story teller spoke. – used with a noun.
He was quiet. – with a pronoun.
If the modifier tells when, where, how, or to what extent, it is an adverb.
Examples:
He will come tomorrow. – when
He will come here. – where
He will come secretly. – how
He will be very cautious. – to what extent
But if it tells which one, what kind, or how many, it is an adjective.
He will steal this cow. – which one
He will carry a sharp spear. – what kind
He will be joined for ten years. – how many
You will recall that we said that an adjective appears after a linking verb and modifies the subject.
Examples:
He became successful. (successful modifies he)
You seem tired. (tired modifies you)
You appears sick. (sick modifies she)
You look great! (great modifies you)
They sound bored. (bored modifies they)
It feels wet. (wet modifies it)
The oranges taste sweet. (sweet modifies oranges)
The baby grows big. (big modifies baby)
She smells nice. (nice modifies she).
Sometimes the verbs in the sentences above are used as action verbs. In this case, they are followed by adverbs, not adjectives. They modify the verbs and tell how, when, where, or to what extent.
Examples:
The singer looked up.
v adv
We tasted the chocolate eagerly.
v adv
The principal appeared suddenly.
v adv
Good and well have similar meanings, but differ in their use in a sentence.
Example:
Incorrect: He narrates the story good.
Correct: He narrates the story well.
Good is always an adjective and modifies nouns or pronouns. It is never used to modify a verb.
Example:
He is a good narrator. (adjective modifying the noun narrator)
Well can be used as either an adjective or an adverb.
Examples:
I feel well. (as an adjective)
He drives well. (as an adverb)
Exercise 4
Choose the correct form of the words in brackets in the following sentences.
COMPARING WITH ADVERBS
We have seen that we can use adjectives to compare people, things or places.
Adverbs can also be used to compare actions. And like adjectives, we use the comparative form of an adverb to compare two actions and the superlative form of an adverb to compare more than two actions.
Examples:
ONE ACTION: Maree swims fast.
TWO ACTIONS: Maree swims faster than Ciku.
THREE OR MORE: Maree swims fastest of all.
Just like adjectives, adverbs have special forms or spelling for making comparisons.
The comparative form
The comparative form of the adverb is used to compare one action with another. It is formed in two ways:
Examples:
The bird flew higher than the helicopter.
The president arrived sooner than we expected.
Examples:
She visited him more frequently than Martin.
The tractor towed the lorry more powerfully than the bull-cart.
The superlative form
The superlative form is used to compare one action with two or more others of the same kind.
Examples:
Of the three athletes, Kipruto runs the fastest.
The lion roars the loudest of all the big cats.
Adverbs that form the comparative with –er form their superlative with –est. Those that use more to form comparative use most to form superlative.
Examples:
Adverbs Comparative Superlative
long longer longest
fast faster fastest
softly more softly most softly
politely more politely most polite
Points to Remember
Examples:
Comparative: He sat nearer to the window than him
Superlatives: He sat nearest to the window than all the others.
Examples:
Incorrect: The lion roared louder than any lion.
Correct: The lion roared louder than any other lion.
Incorrect: The dancer moved more faster than before.
Correct: The dancer moved faster than before.
Summary of rules for comparing with Adverbs
| 1. | For most adverbs Add -er or -est to the adverb | hard late deep harder later deeper hardest latest deepest |
| 2. | For most adverbs comprising of two or more syllables: Use more or most with the adverb | skilfully firmly rudely more skilfully more firmly most rudely most skilfully most firmly most rudely |
Exercise 5
Write each of the following sentences using the correct form of the adverb.
ANSWERS ON ADVERBS
Exercise 1
Adverb What it indicates
Exercise 2
Adverb Adjective
Exercise 3
Adverb adverb
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between other words in a sentence.
Examples:
The cat lay under the table.
The preposition under connects the verb lay with table. Under points out the relationship between lay and table. Hence a preposition is a word that links another word or word group to the rest of the sentence. The noun or pronoun after the preposition is called the object of the preposition. The table is the object of the preposition under in the above sentence. The preposition under relates the verb lay to the noun table.
More examples:
She gave it to me.
(The preposition to relates the pronoun me with the action gave).
I liked the bike with the metal handles.
The preposition with relates the noun handles with the noun bike.
Common prepositions
about before except on toward
above behind for onto under
aboard below from out underneath
across beneath in outside until
after beside inside over up
against between into past upon
along beyond like since with
among by near through within
around down of throughout without
at during off to
From the above list of prepositions, you will note that some of them tell where, others indicate time, others show special relationships like reference or separation.
Changing one preposition with another in a sentence changes the meaning of the sentence.
Example:
The cat lay under the table.
The cat lay on the table.
Lying under the table means below the surface of the table but on means above the surface.
Exercise 1
Write the preposition in each of the following sentences and say what relationship it indicates.
Exercise 2
Use the most appropriate preposition to complete the sentences below.
Preposition Phrases
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object and any words that modify the object.
Examples:
The school children waited for the green light.
In this sentence, the preposition is for, its object is light, and the modifier, or adjective, is green. The entire preposition phrase modifies the verb waited.
Sometimes two or more nouns or pronouns are used as objects in a prepositional phrase.
Example:
He needs a worker with diligence and a good character.
The preposition with has two objects: diligence and character.
Exercise 3
Identify the prepositional phrase in each of the following sentences. Underline the preposition once and its objects twice.
Types of prepositional phrases
Prepositional phrases can either be:
Example:
A scout leader wears a uniform with many badges.
In this sentence, with many badges is an adjective prepositional phrase modifying the noun uniform.
Examples:
Scouts rain for many hours.
The adverb prepositional phrase for many hours modifies the verb train.
They are active in all public functions.
The adverb prepositional phrase in all public functions modifies the adjective active.
The scout leader commands forcefully with a loud voice.
The adverb prepositional phrase with a loud voice modifies the adverb forcefully.
We have seen that the object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition. When the object of the preposition is a pronoun, we use an object pronoun like me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. (And not a subject pronoun like I, he, she, we, and they).
Examples:
Correct: I gave a present to her.
Incorrect: I gave a present to she.
Correct: I gave a present to Jane and her.
Incorrect: I gave a present to Jane and she.
Exercise 4
Choose the pronoun in brackets that correctly completes each of the following sentences.
Sometimes one prepositional phrase immediately follows another.
Examples:
The thief entered the house through the door on the right.
(through the door modifies the verb entered and tells where. on the left modifies the noun door and tells which one.
A prepositional phrase can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.
Examples:
BEGINNING: At dusk we closed the shop.
MIDDLE: The chief of the area was helpful.
END: The path went through the village.
Preposition or Adverb?
Sometimes the same word can be used as either a preposition or an adverb. How can you tell the difference between the two?
Examples:
PREPOSITION: He has a box inside the house.
ADVERB: They ran inside.
You can tell the difference by remembering the following:
Examples:
The helicopter flew past the airport. (preposition)
The aircraft was parked inside the hangar. (preposition)
Examples:
The helicopter flew past. (adverb).
The aircraft was parked inside. (adverb)
The helicopter flew past noisily (adverb).
Therefore, if a word begins a prepositional phrase, it is a preposition. If it stands alone or is followed by an adverb, it is an adverb.
Some words that can be used either as prepositions or adverbs.
above down over
along in out
around inside outside
below near under
by off up
Exercise 5
Indicate after each of the following sentences if it has a preposition or an adverb.
NEGATIVES
Negatives are words that mean “no” or “not”. These words are adverbs.
Examples:
She has no more work.
There are none left.
Other common negatives
not nowhere nobody aren’t haven’t
never nothing no one doesn’t wouldn’t
The combination of a verb and not also form a contraction which is also a negative. The letters n’t stand for not.
Examples:
They won’t be able to attend the funeral.
He couldn’t make a speech.
Double negatives:
A sentence should have only one negative. Using double negatives in a sentence is usually incorrect. A double negative is the use of two negative words together when only one is needed.
Examples:
Incorrect Correct
We don’t need no more problems. We don’t need any more problems.
She hasn’t bought nothing. She hasn’t bought anything.
Mark hasn’t no homework. Mark hasn’t any homework. Or
Mark has no homework.
When you use contractions like don’t and hasn’t, do not use negative words after them. Instead, use words like any, anything, and ever.
Examples:
We don’t have any work.
He hasn’t any work.
I won’t ever respond to the summons.
Other negatives include hardly, barely, and scarcely. They are never used after contractions like haven’t and didn’t.
Examples:
Incorrect Correct
We couldn’t hardly continue with the work. We could hardly continue with the work.
The child can’t barely walk. The child can barely walk.
Exercise 6
Write the following sentences choosing the correct negatives from the ones given in brackets.
ANSWERS ON PREPOSITIONS
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Preposition Object/objects
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a word that connects words or groups of words. Like prepositions, conjunctions show a relationship between the words they connect. But, unlike prepositions, conjunctions do not have objects.
There are 3 main categories of conjunctions;
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect related words, groups of words, or sentences. There are three coordinating conjunctions: and, but and or. And is used to join words, groups of words, or sentences together. But shows contrast while or shows choice.
Examples:
The bull and the cart are inseparable. (connects two subjects).
The cart carries the farmer and his tools. (connects two direct objects).
The food was hard and tasteless. (connects two predicate adjectives).
Each night, the dancers danced in a circle or in several other patterns. (connects two prepositional phrases).
Some people died in the fracas, but most managed to escape, alive. (connects two sentences).
Exercise 1
Complete each of the following sentences using the most appropriate coordinating conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect two or more clauses to form complex sentences. (Refer to Part Two of this handbook). Subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses. They include because, since, if, as, whether, and for.
Examples:
If I go home, my dog will follow me.
The subordinating conjunction if connects the subordinate clause I go home with the main clause my dog will follow me.
The stayed inside the church because it was raining.
He was always rude since he was a child.
The rain fell as they entered the building.
The pastor asked the congregation whether they were happy.
The man rejoiced for he had won a prize.
Exercise 2
Join the following pairs of sentences using the most appropriate subordinating conjunctions.
Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that are used in pairs to connect sentence parts. These include either ….. or, neither ….. nor, not only……. but also, whether ……. or and both …… and.
Examples:
Both boys and girls attended the conference.
People brought not only food but also clothes for the victims of the floods.
The students ride either on bicycles or motorbikes.
The sailor had to decide whether to sail on or head back when the weather changed.
Neither John nor James was moved by the shocking news.
Exercise 3
Join the following pairs of sentences using the correlative conjunctions in brackets.
ANSWERS ON CONJUNCTIONS
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is either a single word or short groups of words that is used to express a feeling or emotion. Interjections can express such feelings as urgency, surprise, relief, joy, or pain. An interjection that expresses strong emotion is often followed by an exclamation mark. An interjection that expresses mild emotion is usually followed by a comma.
Examples:
Let’s go! We can’t sleep before we find the missing boy (urgency).
Phew! I was afraid we would never find him. (relief)
Oh, you have grown so big. (surprise)
Well, I have never been so happy. (joy)
Exercise 1
Identify the interjection in the following sentences and indicate what feeling or emotion it expresses.
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER EIGHT
Exercise 1
CHAPTER TWO
FORMATION AND ORIGIN OF WORDS
Some words in the English language have unique origins and formations.
Some of the words imitate the sounds they represent. These words are called sound or onomatopoeic words. For example, the words bang and crash describe a loud, sudden noise. The word murmur describes a low, soft noise that keeps going.
Many English words imitate noises made by animals. For example, the word chirp imitates the short, high sound made by a small bird or a cricket.
Other examples of sound (onomatopoeic) words
beep gobble neigh squeal
blast growl purr tick
buzz hiss quack zip
clang honk rip
clatter hum roar
crack meow smash
crunch moo splash
Exercise 1
Write a sound word for each of the following descriptions.
Some of the words in the English language come from the names of people and places.
Examples:
| Word | Meaning | Named after |
| Sandwich | Two or more slices of bread with meat between them. | John Montagu, the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who liked eating meat between slices of bread. |
| Maverick | A person who breaks from conventional actions | Samuel Maverick, a Texas cattle owner who refused to brand the calves of one of his herds as per the requirements. |
| Saxophone | A musical wind instrument | Adolphe Sax, the Belgian inventor of the musical instrument. |
| Madras | A cotton cloth with a design or pattern on plain background | Madras, a city in India, where it was invented. |
| Rugby | A game | Rugby school. England, where rugby was invented. |
| Tarantula | A large, hairy spider | Taranto, a town in Italy where Tarantulas are found. |
| Shylock | A greedy money-lender | The relentless and vengeful money- lender in Shakespeare’s play, The Merchant of Venice. |
| Sousaphone | A musical instrument | John Phillip Sousa, an American composer who invented the Sousaphone. |
There are many more words in the English language which originated from names of people or places.
Exercise 2
Find out from your dictionary the origins and meanings of the following English words.
Some words in the English language are a blend of two or more words or morphemes.
Examples:
| Word | Combination of | Meaning |
| Smog | Smoke + fog | A combination of smoke and fog in the air. |
| Fantabulous | Fantastic + fabulous | Incredible, astonishing, unbelievable, wonderful |
| Brunch | Breakfast + lunch | A late breakfast taken some hours before lunch |
| Wikipedia | Wiki + encyclopaedia | A website |
| Comcast | Communication + broadcast | |
| Verizori | Veritas + horizon | |
| Accenture | Accent + future | |
| Spork | Spoon + fork | An eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork. |
| Skort | Skirt + shorts | An item of clothing that is part skirt and short. |
| Simulcast | Simultaneous + broadcast | To broadcast a programme on television and radio at the same time |
| Cyborg | Cybernetic + organism | |
| Motel | Motor + hotel | A roadside hotel |
Exercise 3
Identify the words that are blended to form the following words. Find out their meanings from your dictionary.
Some words are formed addition of prefixes and suffixes to other words.
Prefixes
A prefix is a word part that is added to the beginning of a word to form another word or to change its meaning. The word to which the prefix is added is called the base word.
Examples:
Prefix Base word New word
un friendly unfriendly
pre pay prepay
A prefix changes the meaning of the base word. For example, the prefix un-above means “not”. Hence, unfriendly means “not friendly”. Each prefix has its own meaning.
More examples of common English prefixes
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
| mis- re- pre- ante- anti- contra- counter- en- extra- inter- intra- non- over- post- pre-
pro- re- semi- trans- un-
under- | wrong, incorrectly again before, in advance before, preceding opposing, against, the opposite against opposition, opposite direction put into or on outside, beyond between, among inside, within absence, negation excessively, completely after in time, or order before in time, place order or importance favouring, in support of again half, partly across, beyond not
beneath, below | misspell – to spell incorrectly revisit – visit again preschool – before school antecedent, ante-room anti-aircraft, antibiotic, anticlimax contraceptive, contraband counter-attack, counteract engulf, enmesh extraordinary, extracurricular interact, interchange intramural, intravenous non-smoker, non-alcoholic overconfident, overjoyed postpone, post-mortem precondition, preadolescent
Pro-African repaint, reawaken semicircle, semi-conscious transnational, transatlantic unacceptable, unreal, unhappy, unmarried underarm, undercarriage |
Exercise 4
Give the meaning of the following prefixes and write two examples each of words in which they are used. Use your dictionary.
Suffixes
A suffix is a word part that is added to the end of a base word to form a new word or to change its meaning.
Example:
Enjoy + able = enjoyable
Each suffix has its own meaning. The suffix “able” means “capable of”. Hence enjoyable means “capable of being enjoyed”.
Common English suffixes
| Suffix | Meaning | Examples |
| Noun Suffixes -acy -al -ance, -ence -dom -er, -or -ism -ist -ity, -ty -ment -ness -ship -sion, -tion Verbs suffixes -ate -en -ify, -fy -ize, ise Adjective suffixes -able, -ible -al -esque -ful -ic, -ical -ious, ous -ish – ive -less -y | state or quality act or process of quality of place or state of being one who doctrine, belief one who quality of condition of state of being position held state of being
become become make or become become
capable of being pertaining to reminiscent of notable for pertaining to characterized by having the quality of having the nature of without characterized by | privacy, advocacy refusal, dismissal Maintenance, eminence freedom, kingdom trainer, protector Communism, Marxism chemist, pharmacist veracity, curiosity argument, armament heaviness, fearlessness fellowship, headship concession, transition
eradicate, fumigate enlighten, fugliten terrify, specify civilize, apologize
edible, presentable regional, sectional picturesque fanciful, colourful musical, mythic nutritious, portentous fiendish, greenish creative, abusive endless, pointless sleazy, cheeky
|
Exercise 5
Add an appropriate suffix to each of the following words and then give the meaning of the new word.
WORDS USAGE
Words in English language have various meanings depending on their usage in sentences.
Homographs are words which are spelled the same but have different meanings. They usually appear as separate entries in a dictionary.
Examples:
The man dug a well in his compound.
They worked well together.
In the first sentence, the noun well means “a spring of water”. In the second sentence, the adverb well means “in a good manner”.
Examples of common homographs in the English Language
| Homograph | Meaning | Examples |
| bear
sow
lead
close
wind
date
fast
hide
net
pick | (V) to support or carry (N) an animal (V) to plant seed (N) female pig (V) to guide
(N) a metal (Adv)near
(V) lock
(V) turning something around (N) marking air
(V) to determine the age (N) to “go out” (N) a kind of fruit a calendar
(N) time (Adj) quick (V) to choose not to eat food
(N) animal skin (V) to conceal
(N) woven trap made of rope or cord (Adj) amount remaining after deductions. (N) a kind of tool (V) to choose | I will bear the burden. The bear killed the hunter. The farmer sowed the seeds. The sow is very fat. The mother duck can lead her ducklings around. Gold is heavier than lead. The tiger was now so close. that I could smell it. “Will you please close that door?” Wind your watch. The wind howled through the woodlands. Can you date this sculpture? I have a date with Mary. Dates are grown in South Africa. What is the date today? He is a fast runner. The Christians fast just before Easter. He is tanning the hide. They hide their money under their pillows. They caught fish using a net.
His net pay is thirty thousand shillings per month. He used a pick to dig the hole. Pick the dress that you want. |
Some homographs are spelled the same but pronounced differently.
Example:
The wind is strong today.
This path winds through the hills.
Exercise 6
Write two meanings of the following homographs and use each of them in sentences of your own.
Homophones are words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings.
Example:
She will buy music composed by my favourite artist.
Homophones are often confused when writing by many students because of similarity in pronunciation.
Examples of common homophones in English
| Homophones | Meaning | Examples |
| aisle isle | (V) the walkway (N) island | I quickly walked down the aisle. He grew up on the isle of Elba.
|
| allowed aloud | (V) permitted (Adv) not silently | His mother allowed him to stay up late. She read the story aloud. |
| Ate
eight | (V) past tense of “eat” (N) number | She ate a quick lunch. I bought eight tickets. |
| ball
bawl | (N) a round object used in games (V) to cry
| He took the ball to the beach.
Please don’t bawl! It’s not that bad. |
| bear
bare | (V) to stand something (Adj.) naked | He can’t bear exams.
He stood outside in the rain completely bare. |
| Base
bass
| (N) the bottom support of something (N) the lowest pitches in music
| We need a new base for that lamp.
I sang bass in the church choir. |
More examples of homophones
| lead, led least, leased loan, lone male, mail meet, meat mind, mined morning, mourning naval, navel new, knew no, know one, won pear, pair pie, pi piece, peace pier, peer poor, pour rain, reign raw, roar read, reed road, rode sale, sail saw, sore see, sea sun, son tail, tale tea, tee their, they’re they’re, there tide, tied too, to two, too wail, whale warn, worn weal, wheel | wear, where weather, whether week, weak weight, wait while, wile wood, would write, right yew, you your, you’re acetic, ascetic axle, axial formerly, formally ion, iron loch, lock holy, wholly heal, heel ad, add ail, ale all, awl alms, arms altar, alter arc, ark aren’t, aunt anger, augur aural, oral away, aweigh awe, oar, or, ore bale, bail band, banned bean, been blew, blue brake, break cell, sell cent, scent, sent
| cereal, serial check, cheque chord, cord cite, site, sight coo, coup cue, queue dam, damn dew, due die, dye doh, doe, dough earn, urn ewe, yew, you faint, feint fair, fare feat, feet few, phew find, fined fir, fur flaw, floor flea, flee flew, flue flour, flower for, fore, four foreword, forward fort, fought gait, gate genes, jeans gnaw, nor, gorilla, guerrilla grate, great groan, grown guessed, guest hale, hail hair, hare
|
Exercise 7
Give the homophones and the meanings of the following words.
Synonyms are words that have almost the same meaning but different spelling and pronunciation.
Examples:
Slender – thin finish – end sick –ill
Some words have several synonyms. For example, happy has such synonyms words like light-hearted, pleased, and cheerful.
Synonyms help vary the writing, just like pronouns do. For example, the word happy and its synonyms help vary the writing.
Daniel felt happy – Daniel felt light-hearted.
She was happy with her grade – She was pleased with her grade.
They sang a happy song – They sang a cheerful song.
Examples of common synonyms in English
| about, approximately accomplish, achieve administer, manage admit, confess almost, nearly annoy, irritate answer, reply arise, occur arrive, reach begin, start belly, stomach bizarre, weird brave, courageous chop, cut clerk, receptionist close, shut contrary, opposite correct, right daybreak, dawn demonstrate, protest denims, jeans desert, abandon devil, Satan disappear, vanish eager, keen emphasize, stress enormous, huge, immense enquire, investigate evaluate, assess fanatic, enthusiast fool, idiot sincere, honest skull, cranium soiled, dirty suggest, propose sunrise, dawn temper, mood trustworthy, reliable
| formerly, previously fragrance, perfume function, operate garbage, rubbish gay, homosexual grab, seize gut, intestine hard, tough hashish, cannabis hawk, peddle hint, trace, tip homicide, murder hunger, starvation hurry, rush idler, loafer if, whether illustrate, demonstrate imitate, mimic immediate, instant immobile, motionless impartial, neutral impasse, deadlock impolite, rude inconsiderate, thoughtless infamous, notorious informal, casual inheritor, heir instructions, directions jealous, envious joy, delight lacking, missing lethal, deadly ultimate, final uncommon, unusual uncooked, raw unforeseen, unexpected unfortunate, unlucky unmarried, single untimely, premature | lousy, awful madness, insanity magnify, exaggerate manmade, artificial material, fabric merciless, cruel midway, halfway mind, intellect mirror, reflect mistrust, distrust modern, contemporary movie, film murderer, assassin naked, bare nameless, anonymous nightfall, dusk noon, midday numerous, many object, thing outside, external overlook, miss peaceable, peaceful poisonous, toxic post-mortem, autopsy praise, compliment reasonable, fair refrain, chorus religious, devout respond, reply scarcity, shortage signal, sign silly, foolish vain, useless vary, differ vast, huge winery, vineyard withstand, resist zenith, peak |
Exercise 8
Give the synonyms of the following words:
Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. Antonyms also add variety to your writing.
Examples:
Cold-hot heavier – lighter fearful – brave.
Some words have more than one antonym. Some of these antonyms can be formed by adding a prefix to a base word.
Examples:
Kind – cruel, unkind like – hate, dislike
Examples of common antonyms in English
| absent – present absurd – sensible abundant – scarce accidental – intentional accuse – defend accurate – incorrect admit – deny advance – retreat after – before alien – native alone – together always – never amuse – bore anger – kindness applaud – boo asleep – awake beautiful – ugly beg – offer below – above bitter – sweet buy – sell careful – careless cease – begin civilian – military closed – open condemn – praise crooked – straight dangerous – safe dead – alive deep – shallow destroy – create drunk – sober east – west
| enemy – friend evil – good exhale – inhale expensive – cheap fail – succeed fat – skinny fertile – barren floor – ceiling former – latter funny – serious generous – stingy genuine – fake guilty – innocent humble – arrogant husband – wife illegal – lawful import – export indoor – outdoor inferior – superior intelligent – stupid joy – grief kind – mean king – commoner lazy – industrious lock – unlock majority – minority man – woman merciful – cruel moist – dry nervous – calm obey – disobey original – copy patient – impatient | permit – forbid polite – rude positive – negative private – public push – pull question – answer quick – slow reckless – cautious rival – friend sane – insane servant – master sick – well simple – complex slavery – freedom smart – dumb solid – gas spend – save stranger – friend strong – weak sudden – gradual suffix – prefix tame – wild temporary – permanent thaw – freeze tough – tender unique – common vacant – occupied victory – defeat villain – hero war – peace young – old
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Exercise 9
Give the antonyms of the following words:
An idiom is a phrase that has a special meaning as a whole. The meaning of an idiom is different from the meanings of its separate words.
Examples:
It was raining cats and dogs.
The idiom raining cats and dogs does not mean that cats and dogs were falling out of the sky! It means “raining heavily”.
I put my foot in my mouth today.
The idiom put my foot in my mouth means “to say the wrong thing”. Sometimes the context in which an idiom is used can give a hint of its meaning.
Example:
Jeff is talking through his hat when he says that he can spell every word in the English language.
This idiom clearly means that Jeff cannot possibly spell every word in the English language. Hence, the idiom talking through his hat means talking nonsense
More examples of idioms in the English language
| Idiom | Meaning | |
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| It was a blessing in disguise.
He is a doubling Thomas.
That scandal was a drop in the bucket. The exam was a piece of cake.
The punishment was a slap in the wrist.
The thief received a taste of his own medicine.
Don’t add fuel to the fire!
The principal is just all bark but no bite.
The theory is all Greek to me.
We are all in the same boat.
The house cost him an arm and a leg.
The teacher has an axe to grind with the bursar.
Joyce is the apple of my eye. | Something good that is not recognised at first.
A sceptic who needs physical or personal evidence in order to believe something.
A very small part of something big or whole. A task that can be accomplished very easily.
A very mild punishment.
He was mistreated the same way he mistreats others.
When something is done to make a bad situation even worse than it is.
When someone is threatening and/or aggressive but not willing to engage in a fight.
Meaningless and incomprehensible.
When everyone is facing the same challenges.
Very expensive. A large amount of money.
To have a dispute with someone.
Someone who is cherished above all others. |
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39 | Idiom The boy did the work at the drop of a hat.
The politician is a back seat driver.
They were back to square one in their search for the treasure.
The government has to go back to the drawing board on the issue of the New Constitution.
The investigator realised he was barking the wrong tree.
You are beating a dead horse.
Stop beating around the bush.
I will bend over backwards to see you through school. She was caught between a rock and a hard place.
You are biting off more than you can chew.
John decided to bite his tongue.
Tom has a cast iron stomach.
That is a cock and bull story.
I will have to win, come hell or high water.
Don’t cry over spilt milk.
He likes crying wolf.
Tim is a dark horse.
Kinyua is a devil’s advocate.
My father drinks like a fish.
This problem is driving me up the wall.
The students had a field day with the visiting guests.
The food was finger licking good.
He changed from rags to riches.
I need to get over it.
She got up on the wrong side of the bed.
You must go the extra mile to achieve your goal.
| Meaning Willing to do something immediately.
People who criticize from the sidelines.
Having to start all over again.
When an attempt fails and its time to start all over again.
A mistake made in something you are trying to achieve.
To force an issue that has already ended.
Avoiding the main topic, not speaking directly about an issue.
Do whatever it takes to help. Willing to do anything. Stuck between two very bad options.
To take on a task that is way too big.
To avoid talking.
Someone who has no problems, complications, or ill effects with eating or drinking anything.
An unbelievable tale.
Any difficult situation or obstacle.
When you complain about a loss from the past.
Intentionally raise a false alarm.
One who was previously unknown and now is prominent.
Someone who takes a position for the sake of argument without believing in that particular side of the argument.
To drink very heavily.
To irritate or annoy very much.
An enjoyable day or circumstance.
Very tasty food or meal.
To go from being very poor to being very wealthy.
To move beyond something that is bothering you.
Someone who is having a horrible day.
Go above and beyond whatever is required for the task at hand. |
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93 | Joan is a good Samaritan.
I have a gut feeling she will die.
The player lost his head when he missed the goal.
He was head over heels in love with her.
He gave her a high five when he won the contest.
Let us hit the books!
I will hit the hay now.
The preacher hit the nail on the head.
She hit the sack after a hard day’s work.
Hold your horses, the speaker is coming.
The certificate was an icing on the cake after the monetary. reward.
The girl became careless in the heat of the moment.
The policeman kept an eye on him. He kept his chin up during the burial.
The old man kicked the bucket.
Lend me your ear.
You let the cat out of the bag.
The by-election was not a level playing field.
He ran all over like a chicken with its head cut off.
Mr. Gumo is a loose canon.
I am not interested in his mumbo jumbo.
She is the new kid on the block.
He started off on the wrong foot.
The accused man is now off the hook.
I said that off the record!
I was on pins and needles.
The prefects sit on the fence when there is a strike.
The dog appeared out of the blue.
You will get the job over my dead body.
Mark is fond of passing the buck to his brother.
Dennis is a peeping Tom.
“Pipe down! We have heard you!
You are pulling my leg.
Rise and shine! It’s time to go to school.
The businessman has run out of steam nowadays.
The convict was saved by a bell.
He was a scapegoat for amorous politician.
The naughty boy got away scot-free.
She was sick as a dog.
He has a sixth sense.
The judge smelt a rat when the witness started trembling.
The prosecutor smelt something fishy when the accused winked at the witness.
We have to start from scratch.
The ball is in your court.
They tied the knot in December.
I will wait till the cows come home.
To make a long story short, you are not coming with us.
The government turned a blind eye to the plight of IDPs.
I am under the weather today.
Forget the water under the bridge.
He will pay you the money when pigs fly.
She wines and dines with stars.
It is without a doubt the best programme.
Your guess is as good as mine.
| Someone who helps others when they are in need without expecting a reward.
A personal intuition you get, especially when you feel something may not be right.
Angry and overcome by emotions.
Very excited and joyful, especially when in love.
Slapping palms above each others heads as a celebration gesture.
To study, especially for a test or exam.
Go to bed or go to sleep.
Do or say something exactly right.
Go to bed or sleep.
Be patient.
When you already have it good and get something on top of what you already have.
Overwhelmed by what is happening at the moment.
Carefully watch somebody.
To remain joyful in a tough situation.
Die
To politely ask for someone’s full attention.
To share a secret that wasn’t supposed to be shared.
A fair competition where no side has an advantage.
To act in a frenzied manner.
Someone who is unpredictable and can cause damage if not kept in check.
Nonsense or meaningless speech.
Someone new to the group or area.
Getting a bad start on a relationship or task.
No longer have to deal with a tough situation.
Something said in confidence that the speaker doesn’t want attributed to him or her.
Anxious or nervous especially in anticipation of something.
Undecided.
Something that suddenly and unexpectedly occurs or appears.
When you absolutely will not allow something to happen.
Avoid responsibility by giving it to someone else.
Someone who observes people in the nude or sexually active people, mainly for his own gratification.
To shut up or be quiet.
Tricking someone as a joke.
Time to get out of bed and get ready for work or school.
To be completely out of energy.
Saved at the last possible moment.
Someone else who takes the blame.
To escape and not have to pay.
To be very sick (with flu or a cold)
A paranormal sense that allows you to communicate with the dead.
To be suspicious or detect someone in the group is betraying the others.
Detecting that something isn’t right and there might be a reason for it.
To do it all over again from the beginning.
It is your decision this time.
To get married.
A long time.
Said by someone during a long boring story.
Refuse to acknowledge something you know is real or legitimate.
Feeling ill or sick.
Anything from the past that isn’t significant or important any more.
Something that will never ever happen.
When someone is treated to an expensive meal.
For certain.
I have no idea.
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Common idiomatic expressions and sayings
Exercise 10
Give the meaning of the italicized idioms in the following sentences.
ANSWERS FROM CHAPTER TWO
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
– an enclosure for sheep
– the rubber material on the wheel of an automobile or bicycle.
– a bird
– an injury.
– average
– doing something
– weapons
– obstruct
– fight with gloves
– a money depository
Exercise 7
Exercise 8
Exercise 9
Exercise 10
CHAPTER THREE
PHRASES AND SENTENCES
PHRASES
A phrase is a group of words without a subject or a predicate or both and does not express a complete thought. Therefore, a phrase can never stand on its own as a complete sentence. Using different kinds of phrases enables a writer or a speaker to create informative and descriptive sentences that vary in structure. phrases combine words into a larger unit that can function as a sentence element.
The most common kinds of phrases in English are: Noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, gerund phrases and participial phrases.
A noun phrase consists of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function as a subject, object, or complement in the sentence. The modifiers may include articles, prepositions and adjectives.
Examples:
(a) Noun phrases as subjects
The lazy old man sleeps all day long.
Some school boards reward teachers who produce good results.
(b) Noun phrases as objects
Teachers rejected the proposed performance contracts.
Critics opposed the controversial marriage bill.
(c) Noun phrases as complements
Teaching is a valuable profession.
Sheila is a hardworking no-nonsense lady.
Exercise 1
Identify the noun phrases in each of the following sentences and indicate whether it functions as a subject, object or complement.
A verb phrase consists of a main verb and its helping verbs. It can function as the predicate of a sentence. The predicate tells what the subject does or is. (It tells something about the subject).
Examples:
John was born in Malindi.
This problem may have contributed to the collapse of the economy.
Without highly – trained workers, many Kenyan companies would be forced to close down.
Sometimes the parts of a verb phrase are separated from each other by words that are not verbs.
Examples:
He is finally buying a new house.
Salesmen must occasionally travel long distances.
Some words are joined with other words to make contractions.
Examples:
He hasn’t turned up for the meeting (has + not)
We couldn’t tell what had killed the cow. (could + not)
I’ve ordered them to leave the house. (I + have).
NB: The word not and the contraction n’t are adverbs. They are never part of a verb or verb phrase.
Exercise 2
Write the verb phrase in each of the following sentences.
A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition, the object of the preposition, and all the words between them. It often functions as an adjective or adverb, but it can function as a noun as well.
Examples:
We carried the fruits in our school bags. (adverb telling where)
The plane flew through the cloud. (adverb telling where)
Almost half of Africa’s population suffers from water – related diseases. (adverb modifying suffers).
The water supply in the United States is expected to decline dramatically. (adjective modifying water supply).
The best time to practise water conservation is before a water shortage. (noun functioning as a complement).
In sentence 1 above, the preposition is in, the object of the preposition is bags, and the modifiers or adjectives are our and school.
Sometimes two or more nouns or pronouns are used as objects in a prepositional phrase.
Example:
He needs a wife with diligence and a good character.
Diligence and character are objects of the preposition with.
When prepositional phrases function as adjectives and adverbs in sentences, they are called adjectival and adverbial phrases respectively.
Examples:
The woman wears shoes with sharp heels. (an adjectival phrase modifying the noun shoes)
The man with a funny – looking dog crossed the road. (an adjectival phrase modifying the noun man)
Examples:
Soldiers train for many months. (an adverbial phrase modifying the verb train)
People are lazy in the afternoons. (an adverbial phrase modifying the adjective lazy.)
She arrived late in the night. (an adverbial phrase modifying the adverb late).
Sometimes one prepositional phrase immediately follows another.
Examples:
The man led him through the door on the left.
Note that the prepositional phrase through the door is an adverbial phrase modifying the verb led and tells where? The second prepositional phrase on the left is an adjectival phrase modifying the noun door and tells which one?
A prepositional phrase can be at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.
Examples:
At dusk, we began to walk home.
The map of the area was very helpful.
The path went by a forest and a large lake.
Exercise 3
Underline the prepositional phrases in the following sentences and indicate what type each of them is.
A gerund is a verb form used as a noun. It is formed by adding –ing to the present these of a verb. Gerunds can be used as subjects, direct objects, objects of prepositions, and complements.
Examples:
Subject: Fishing is a popular activity in Nyanza Province.
(Fishing is a gerund, the subject of the verb is)
Direct object: The sport involves riding. (riding is a gerund, the direct object of the verb involves)
Object of preposition: The sport is similar to fencing. (fencing is a gerund, the object of the preposition to).
A gerund phrase includes a gerund, its modifiers, objects or complements. It always functions as a noun.
Examples:
Becoming a Tusker Project fame finalist was Msechu’s lifetime dream. (gerund phrase is the subject of the sentence.)
Msechu dreamt all his life about winning the top award. (the gerund phrase is an object of the preposition about).
One of Msechu’s biggest disappointments was losing to Alpha. (the gerund phrase is a complement).
The game involves jumping over hurdles. (object of the verb involves).
Exercise 4
Underline the gerund or gerund phrases in the following sentences and label each one subject, direct, object, object of preposition, or complement.
A participle is a verb form that always acts as an adjective. There are two types of participles:
Examples:
Fooled, the shopkeeper bought fake products. (Fooled is a past participle modifying the noun shopkeeper)
Shaken, he dashed to the police station.
(Shaken is a past participle modifying the pronoun he)
The participles of irregular verbs, however, do not follow the above rule: run-run, throw-thrown.
Examples:
Smiling, the conman stepped out of the shop. (Smiling is a present participle modifying the noun conman).
Using participles is a simple way of adding information to sentences and to vary sentences beginnings.
A participial phrase consists of a present or past participle and its modifiers, objects, or complements. It always functions as an adjective.
Examples:
Rounding the corner, the conman met two policemen.
(Rounding the corner is a present participial phrase modifying the noun conman).
Surprised by the appearance of the conman, the policemen started blowing their whistles.
(Surprised by the appearance of the conman is a past participial phrase modifying the noun policemen).
A participle or participial phrase is not always at the beginning of a sentence. Sometimes it may appear in the middle but it should be near the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Examples:
The skilled policemen arrested the conman.
The conman, losing control, fought the policemen fiercely.
Points to note
Both the gerund and the present participle are created by a adding –ing to the present tense of a verb. BUT how can you tell whether a word is a gerund or a participle? It all depends on how the word is used in a sentence.
Example:
Gaining courage, the conman attempted to escape. (Gaining courage is a participial phrase modifying conman).
Example:
Gaining courage made the conman look aggressive. (Gaining courage is a gerund phrase, the subject of the verb made).
Exercise 5
Underline the participial phrases in the following sentences, indicating whether it is a past or present participial phrase and the noun or pronoun it modifies.
An infinitive is a verb form that usually appears with the word to before it. To is called the sign of the infinitive.
Examples:
to lift to eat to launch to register
To is a preposition if it is followed by a noun or noun phrase, but it is a sign of the infinitive if it is followed by a verb or verb phrase.
Examples:
Joseph longed for a flight to the moon. (prepositional phrase)
Not until 1985 was he able to succeed. (infinitive)
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and its modifiers, objects or complements. It can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb.
Examples:
To write clearly and concisely can be difficult sometimes. (Infinitive phrase functioning as a noun and the subject of the sentence).
Proofreading your writing is a good way to ensure the absence of typing mistakes. (Infinitive phrase functioning as an adjective modifying the noun way).
To greatly increase the amount of stress in your life, leave your writing task until the night before it is due. (Infinitive phrase functioning as an adverb modifying the verb leave).
Exercise 6
Underline the infinitive phrases in each of the following sentences and state whether it is functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.
ANSWERS ON CHAPTER THREE
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
to the market – adverbial modifying the verb went.
Exercise 4
Exercise 5
Exercise 6
CHAPTER FOUR
SENTENCES
What is a sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. A complete thought is clear. A sentence always begins with a capital letter. It ends with a full stop (.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation mark (!).
Examples:
Ted sent me a letter.
Jane slept soundly.
Sentence fragments
A sentence fragment does not express a complete thought. The reader or listener cannot be sure what is missing in or the meaning of a sentence fragment.
He or she will be left wondering: What is this about? What happened?
Examples:
Fragment: The huge boat. (What happened?)
Sentence: The huge boat sails down the river.
You can correct a sentence fragment by supplying the missing information.
Subjects and predicates
The two fundamental parts of every English sentence are the subject and the predicate. A subject can be described as the component that performs the action described by the predicate. It tells who or what does or did the action. It may also name the topic.
The predicate tells about the subject. It tells what the subject does or is.
Examples:
Subject Predicate
(Who or what) (What is said about the subject)
The antelope jumped over the high fence.
Pigs eat anything is sight when hungry.
In a sentence, a few key words are more important than the rest. These key words make the basic framework of the sentence. The verb and its subject are the key words that form the basic framework of every sentence. The rest of the sentence is built around them.
Examples:
Sentence Key words
The young kids jumped playfully. kids, jumped
Their faces shone brightly. faces, shone
To find out the subject, ask who or what before the verb.
Examples:
Who jumped playfully? – kids
What shone brightly? – faces
To find out the verb, ask what after the subject.
Examples:
The young kids did what? – jumped
Their faces did what? – shone
The key word in the subject of a sentence is called the simple subject. For example, kids, faces. The complete subject is the simple subject plus any words that modify or describe it. For example, The young kids, Their faces.
The key word in the predicate is called the simple predicate. For example, jumped, shone. The complete predicate is the verb plus any words that modify or complete the verb’s meaning. For example, jumped playfully, shone brightly.
The simple subjects and predicates may sometimes be more than one word. For simple subjects, it may be the name of a person or a place.
Examples:
Ballack Obama won the US presidential race.
South Africa is the home of many bats.
The simple predicate may also be more than one word. There may be a main verb and a helping verb.
Tanya has acted in many TV shows.
She will be performing again tonight.
Objects
An object in a sentence is a word or words that complete the meaning of a sentence. It is involved in the action but does not carry it out. The object is the person or thing affected by the action described in the verb. It is always a noun or a pronoun and it always comes after the verb.
Example:
The man climbed a tree.
Some verbs complete the meaning of sentences without the help of other words. The action that they describe is complete.
Examples:
It rained.
The temperature rose.
Some other verbs do not express a complete meaning by themselves. They need to combine with other words to complete the meaning of a sentence.
Examples:
Christine saw the snake.
Rose wears goggles.
He opened the door.
In the above examples, the snake, goggles and the door are the objects as they are the things being affected by the verbs in the sentences.
(Refer to the topic on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs under the main topic VERBS).
Exercise 1
Which groups of words are sentences and which ones are sentence fragments?
Direct and indirect objects
Objects come in two types, direct and indirect:
Direct objects
The direct object is the word that receives the action of a verb.
Examples:
Christine saw a snake. ( a snake receives the action of saw)
Rose wears goggles. (goggles receives the action of wears)
Sometimes the direct object tells the result of an action.
Examples:
Tecla won the race.
She received a trophy.
To find the direct object first find the verb. Then ask whom or what after the verb.
Examples:
Christine saw a snake. Rose wears goggles
Verb: saw verb: wears
Saw what? a snake wears what? goggles
Tecla won the race She received a trophy
Verb: won verb: received
Won what? the race received what? a trophy
Remember, we said earlier that a verb that has a direct object is called a transitive verb and a verb that does not have an object is called an intransitive verb. We also said that a verb may be intransitive in one sentence and transitive in another. Other verbs are strictly intransitive like disagree.
Indirect objects
The indirect object refers to a person or thing who receives the direct object. They tell us for whom or to whom something is done. Others tell to what or for what something is done.
Examples:
I gave him the book.
He is the indirect object as he is the beneficiary of the book.
Direct object or adverb?
Direct objects are sometimes confused with adverbs. The direct object tells what or whom as we have seen earlier. Adverbs on the other hand tell how, where, when or to what extent. They modify the verbs.
Examples:
Brian Swam slowly. (slowly is an adverb telling how)
Brian Swam a tough race. (race is a direct object telling what).
Verbs can also be followed by a phrase that tells how, when, or where. This kind of a phrase is never a direct object but an adverbial phrase.
Example:
Brian swam across the pool. (a cross the pool tells where Brian Swam).
Therefore, to decide whether a word or a phrase is a direct object or adverb, decide first what it tells about the verb. If it tells how, where, when or to what extent, it is an adverb. If it tells what or whom, it is a direct object.
Exercise 2
Identify the objects or the adverbs/adverbial phrases in the following sentences. If the sentence has two objects, indicate the direct object and the indirect object.
Complements
Some sentences do not take objects or adverbs (or adverbial phrases) after the verbs. Instead, they take complements. A complement is the part of the sentence that gives more information about the subject (subject complement) or about the object (object complement) of the sentence.
Subject complements
Subject complements normally follow certain verbs like be, seem, look, etc.
Examples:
He is British. (British gives more information about he)
She became a nurse. (nurse gives more information about she)
Object complements
Object complements follow the direct objects of the verb and give more information about those direct objects.
Examples:
They painted the house red. (red is a complement giving more information about the direct object house)
She called him an idiot. (an idiot is a complement giving more information about the direct object he).
The complement often consists of an adjective (e.g. red) or a noun phrase (e.g. an idiot) but can also be a participle phrase.
Example:
I saw her standing there. (standing there is a complement telling more about her).
Exercise 3
Pick out the complements in the following sentences and indicate whether subject, object or participial complements.
TYPES OF SENTENCES
Sentences can be categorised in terms of structure or in terms of purpose.
Sentences can be categorised into 3 main types:
A simple sentence contains a single subject and predicate. It describes only one thing, idea or question, and has only one verb. It contains only an independent (main) clause.
Any independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
Examples:
Bill reads.
Jack plays football.
Even the addition of adverbs, adjectives and prepositional phrases to a simple sentence does not change its structure.
Example:
The white dog with the black collar always barks loudly.
Even if you join several nouns with a conjunction, or several verbs with a conjunction, it remains a simple sentence.
Example:
The dog barked and growled loudly.
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences joined together using a co-ordinating conjunction such as and, or or but.
Example:
The sun was setting in the west and the moon was just rising.
Each clause can stand alone as a sentence.
Example:
The sun was setting in the west. The moon was just rising.
Every clause is like a sentence with a subject and a verb. A coordinating conjunction goes in the middle of the sentence; it is the word that joins the two clauses together.
Other examples:
I walked to the shops, but my wife drove there.
I might watch the film, or I might visit my aunt.
My friend enjoyed the film, but she didn’t like the actor.
Note
Two simple sentences should be combined to form one compound sentence only if the ideas they express are closely related. If the ideas are not closely related, the resulting sentence may not make sense.
Examples:
Incorrect: The car is old, and Dan likes sociology.
Correct: The car is old, but it functions superbly.
Punctuating compound sentences
When writing some compound sentences, a comma is used before the conjunction. The comma tells the reader where to pause. Without a comma, some compound sentences can be quite confusing.
Examples:
Confusing: Jane studied the specimen and her sister took notes.
(The sentence might cause the reader to think that Jane studied both the specimen and her sister)
Better: Jane studied the specimen, and her sister took notes.
(The comma makes the sentence to be clear)
Sometimes the parts of a compound sentence can be joined with a semicolon (;) rather than a comma and a conjunction.
Example:
Jane studied the specimen; her sister took notes.
Never join simple sentences with a comma alone. A comma is not powerful enough to hold the sentences together. Instead use a semicolon.
Example:
Incorrect: My father enjoyed the meal, he didn’t like the soup.
Correct: My father enjoyed the meal; he didn’t like the soup.
Correct: My father enjoyed the meal, but he didn’t like the soup.
A complex sentence contains one independent (main) clause and one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses. They describe more than one thing or idea and have more than one verb in them. They are made up of more than one clause, an independent clause (that can stand by itself) and a dependent clause (which cannot stand by itself).
Example:
The picture looks flat because it is colourless.
(The picture looks flat is the independent (main) clause whereas because it is colourless is the subordinate (dependent) clause)
What is a clause?
A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject. There are two types of clauses – main clauses and subordinate clauses.
Main clauses
A main clause is a clause that can stand as sentence by itself. A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses, because it is made up of two or more simple sentences. Each of these simple sentences is a main clause.
Example:
Robots operate machines, and they solve many labour problems.
Robots operate machines and they solve many labour problems are both main clauses. They are also simple sentences. Main clauses are sometimes called independent clauses.
Subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses are clauses that do not express a complete thought. So they cannot stand by themselves.
Examples:
If technology will improve When robots can do the work
While electronics will work After the system is complete.
None of the above clauses express a complete thought. They are sentence fragments that leave the reader wondering then what?
Subordinate clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as if, when, while, and after.
Other examples of subordinating conjunctions:
although because so that until
as before than whatever
as if in order that though wherever
as long as provided till whenever
as though since unless where
Now we can understand a complex sentence better. We have said that it contains one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Main clause subordinate clause
The bell started ringing before we were out of bed.
The battery needs recharging so that it can work tonight.
The subordinate clause can sometimes appear before the main clauses.
Examples:
When the power failed, the computer stopped.
Before you know it, your flat screen television will be stolen.
The subordinate clause can also sometimes appear in between the sentence.
Example:
The medicine man, who knew many tricks, cheated the man that he had been bewitched.
Types of subordinate clauses
Subordinate clauses may be used in sentences as adjectives, adverbs and nouns in complex sentences. Such clauses are called adjectival, adverbial and noun clauses respectively. They add variety to one’s writing. They can also make one’s writing more interesting by adding details.
Examples:
Without subordinate clause: The bushman told us about the hidden cave.
With subordinate clause: The bushman, who knew the forest well, told us about the hidden cave.
An adjectival clause acts as an adjective in a sentence, that is, it modifies a noun or a pronoun.
Examples:
The bushman, who knew the forest well, told us about the hidden cave.
(who knew the forest well is an adjectival clause that modifies the noun bushman).
The bushman told us a legend that involved the cave. (that involved the cave is an adjectival clause that modifies the noun legend).
An adjective clause usually comes immediately after the noun it modifies.
More examples:
People still search for the treasure that the pirate hid.
As can be seen from the above examples, adjectival clauses, like adjectives, modify nouns or pronouns answering questions like which? or what kind of?
Adjective Adjective clause
The red coat the coat which I bought yesterday
Like the adjective red the adjectival clause which I bought yesterday modifies the noun coat. Note than an adjectival clause usually comes after what it modifies while an adjective comes before.
Relative pronouns
Besides use of subordinating conjunctions, adjectival clauses can be introduced by relative pronouns. Relative pronouns are the words who, whom, whose, that and which. These words relate the subordinate clauses to the word it modifies in the main clause.
Examples:
The books that people read were mainly religious.
Some fire-fighters never meet the people whom they save.
The meat which they ate was rotten.
In the last sentence, the relative clause (called so because it is introduced by the relative pronoun which) which they ate modifies the noun meat and answers the question which meat?
More examples:
They are searching for the one who borrowed the book.
The relative clause who borrowed the book modifies the pronoun one and answers the question which one?
Besides relating the adjectival clause to a noun or pronoun in the main clause, a relative pronoun may also act as the subject, object, predicate pronoun, or object of a preposition in the clause.
Examples:
Subject: This is the forest that has a secret cave.
(that is the subject of has)
Object: The map, which you saw, guides the way.
(which is the object of saw)
Object of a preposition: The map leads to the cave of which the bushman spoke.
(which is the object of the preposition of)
In informal writing or speech, you may leave out the relative pronoun when it is not the subject of the adjectival clause, but you should usually include the relative pronoun in formal academic writing.
Examples:
Formal: The books that people read were mainly religious.
Informal: The books people read were mainly religious.
Formal: The map which you saw guides the way.
Informal: The map you saw guides the way.
But never omit the relative pronoun if it is in the clause.
Examples:
Correct: This is the forest that has a secret cave.
Incorrect: This is the forest has a secret cave.
Commas are put around adjectival clauses only if they merely add additional information to a sentence.
Example:
The map, which you saw, shows the way.
This adjective clause can be left out without affecting the grammatical structure of the sentence. It is merely adding information to the sentence by telling us which map?
The map shows the way.
An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause which takes the place of an adverb in a sentence. Just like adverbs and adverbial phrases, adverbial clauses answer the questions where, when, how, to what extent, with what goal/result and under what conditions. In addition, an adverbial clause may tell why.
Note how an adverb clause can replace an adverb and an adverbial phrase in the following example:
Adverb: The Prime Minister gave a speech here.
Adverbial phrase: The Prime Minister gave a speech in the afternoon.
Adverbial clause: The Prime Minister gave a speech where the workers were striking.
Usually, an adverbial clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction like because, when, whenever, where, wherever, since, after and so that.
Note that a subordinate adverb clause can never stand alone as a complete sentence.
Example:
after they left dining hall
The above adverbial clause will leave the reader asking what happened after they left the dining hall?
Adverbial clauses express relationships of cause, effect, place, time and condition.
Cause
Adverb clauses of cause answer the question why?
Example:
Njoroge wanted to kill his uncle because he had murdered his father.
Effect
Adverbial clauses of effect answer the question with what goal/result?
Example:
Njoroge wanted to kill his uncle so that his father’s murder would be avenged.
Time
Adverbial clauses of time answer the question when?
Example:
After Njoroge’s uncle married his mother, he wanted to kill him
Condition
Adverbial clauses of condition answer the question under what conditions?
Example:
If the uncle cooperates, Njoroge may decide to pardon him.
Place
Adverbial clauses of place answer the question where?
Example:
Njoroge organised a demonstration where his father’s murder occurred.
Note that an adverbial clause can appear either before or after the main clause of the sentence.
A noun clause is a clause which takes the place of a noun or a noun phrase. It can be used in any way that a noun is used. That is, it can act as the subject, object, object of a preposition, or predicate noun in a sentence. Just like a noun, a noun clause answers the questions who, when, or what?
Examples:
As subjects
Noun: Kamau is unknown
Noun phrase: Their destination is unknown
Noun clause: Where they are going is unknown.
The noun clause where they are going is the subject of the verb is.
As objects
Noun: I know French.
Noun phrase: I know the three ladies.
Noun clause: I know that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language.
In the first sentence, the noun French acts as the direct object of the verb know. In the third sentence, the entire clause that Latin is no longer spoken as a native language is the direct object of the verb know.
As objects of the preposition
Noun: He talked about him.
Noun phrase: He talked about the funny items.
Noun phrase: He talked about what you bought at the supermarket.
In the first sentence the pronoun him is the object of the preposition about. In the third sentence, what you bought at the supermarket is the object of the preposition about and answers the question about what?
As predicate nouns
Her first day in school was what shaped her life.
The adverbial clause what shaped her life gives more information about the subject of the sentence Her first day in school.
Words often used to introduce noun clauses
that when whose
what whatever whoever
how who whoever
where whom
Note
You cannot tell the kind of a clause from the word that introduces it. You can tell the kind of clause only by the way it is used in a sentence. If the clause is used as a noun, it is a noun clause. If the clause is used as a modifier, it is an adjectival clause or an adverbial clause.
Examples:
Whoever built the house was not an expert. (noun clause as a subject)
No one knew where he came from. (noun clauses a direct object)
He left the construction site whenever he wished. (as an adverbial clause)
This is the layout which he left behind. (as an adjectival clause).
Exercise 4
Identify the following sentences as simple, compound or complex. If it is a complex sentence, indicate whether it has an adjective, an adverb or a noun subordinate clause.
We have seen how sentences are categorised into simple, compound and complex depending on their internal structures. Now, we shall see how they can be categorised in terms of purpose.
There are five kinds of sentences classified according to their end marks and the different jobs they do:
A declarative sentence simply states a fact or argument without requiring either an answer or action from the reader or listener. It is punctuated with a simple period. (fullstop)
Examples:
Nairobi is the capital of Kenya
He asked which path leads back to the park.
Deserts are dry.
The declarative sentence is the most important type of sentences. You can write an entire essay or report using only declarative sentences, and you should always use them for more often than any other type. Some declarative sentences contain indirect questions but this does not make them into interrogative sentences.
Examples:
He asked which path leads back to the park.
An interrogative sentence asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark.
Examples:
How many roads lead into Mombasa city?
Does money grow on trees?
Do you like deserts?
Note that an indirect question does not make a sentence interrogative.
Examples:
Direct/interrogative
When was professor Saitoti the Vice President of Kenya?
Indirect/Declarative
I wonder when Professor Saitoti was the Vice President of Kenya.
A direct question requires an answer from the reader or listener, while an indirect question does not. A special type of direct questions is the rhetorical question. A rhetorical question is one that you do not expect the reader or listener to answer.
Example:
Why did the Mau Mau war take place? Some people argue that it was simply a way of Kenyan Africans saying “enough is enough”.
Rhetorical questions can be very effective way to introduce new topics or problems in one’s writing or speech. But if you use them too often, you sound patronising or even monotonous or mediocre!
An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emphasis or emotion. It is actually a more forceful version of a declarative sentence that is marked at the end with an exclamation mark.
Examples:
It was so cold!
How beautiful this picture is!
You look so lovely tonight!
Exclamatory sentences are vey common in speech and sometimes in writing (but rarely).
Note that an exclamation mark can appear at the end of an imperative sentence, but this does not make it into an exclamatory sentence.
An imperative sentence gives a direct command to someone. This sentence can end either with a period or with an exclamation mark, depending on how forceful the command is.
Examples:
Sit!
Read this book tomorrow.
Always carry water.
Wash the windows!
Note
You should not usually use an exclamation mark with the word “please”.
Example:
Close that door, please!
Please close that door.
In an imperative sentence, you is always the subject. It is usually not stated in the sentence. We say that you is the “understood” or “implied” subject.
Examples:
(You) Please bring my camera.
(You) Take your medicine before going to bed.
A conditional sentence expresses what one would to if a condition were or were not met.
The condition in the conditional if-clause will determine the fulfilment of the action in the main clause.
Examples:
If I had a million dollars, I would buy a Hummer.
John would be very successful if he had more brains.
In sentence 1, the condition of having a million dollars will determine whether the speaker will buy a hummer or not. In sentence, the condition of John not having more brains determines that he is not very successful.
Exercise 5
Label each of the following sentences declarative, imperative, exclamatory, interrogative or conditional
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
DIRECT SPEECH
Direct speech is used to give a speaker’s exact words. It is also referred to as direct quotation.
Direct speech is always enclosed within quotation marks.
Examples:
Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory ”
“Creating jobs will be my first priority” the governor said.
A comma always separates the quoted words from the speaker’s name, whether the name comes before or after the quotation
Examples:
Jim asked “Who are you voting fir?”
“I don’t know yet” answered Carol.
A direct quotation always begins with a capital letter
Example:
Senator Karabba said, “You must believe in the new constitution”.
When a direct quotation is divided by speech tags, the second part of the quotation must begin with a small letter.
Example:
“Register to vote,” said the senator, ‘before the end of the day”.
If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the forst kword of this sentence is capitalized.
Example:
“I did register,” said Carol. “It took only a few minutes”
Commas and full stops are placed inside quotation marks
Example:
“Last night,” said Joyce,” I listened to a debate”
Quotation marks and exclamation marks are placed inside a quotation mark if they belong to the quotation. If they do not, they are placed outside the quotation.
Examples:
Joyce asked, “Whom are you voting for?
Did Carol say, “I don’t know yet’?
I can’t believe that she said, “I don’t know yet’!
Speech tags may appear before, in the middle or at the direct speech.
Examples:
He said, “You know quite well that you have to vote”
“You know quite well, he said, “that you have to vote”.
“You know quite well that you have to vote,” he said.
Exercise 6
Rewrite the following sentences correctly in direct speech. Ensure you puntuiate them accordingly.
Petro said it would help bus0drivers a lot
INDIRECT SPEECH
Indirect speech is used to refer to a person’s words without quoting him or her exactly. It is also referred to as indirect quotation or reported speech. The original spoken words are not repeated.
The exact meaning is given without repeating the speaker’s words.
Example:
Direct speech: The governor said, “Creating new jobs will be my first priority”
Indirect speech: The governor said that creating new jobs would be his first priority.
Several changes do occur when changing a sentence from direct to indirect speech
Quotation marks are left out when writing a sentence in direct speech.
Example:
Direct: Hemedi announced, “My aunt works in a biscuit factory”
Indirect: Hemedi announced that his aunt worked in a biscuit factory.
Examples:
Direct: John said, “She goes to school early”
Indirect: John said that she went to school early.
Direct: John said, “She went to school early”
Indirect: John said that she had gone to school early.
Direct: “The baby is eating a banana,” the nurse said.
Indirect: The nurse said that the baby was eating a banana.
Direct: “South Sudan has become a republic,” the new president declared.
Indirect: The new president declared that South Sudan had become a republic
Direct: “ I was dreaming when the fire started,” the boy said.
Indirect: The boy said the he had been dreaming when the fire started.
Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” my desk mate said.
Indirect: My desk mate said the he would visit me the following day.
Direct: : I may also visit you too,” I replied.
Indirect: I replied that I might also visit him too.
Sometimes the verb in indirect speech does not change tense. This occurs in sentences that are universal truths
Direct: Our Geography teacher said “The earth rotates round the sun”
Indirect: Our Geography teacher said that the earth rotates round the sun
Words referring to place also change
Examples:
Direct: “I live here,” retorted the old man.
Indirect: The old man retorted that he lived there
Direct: “This place stinks,” noted the boy.
Indirect: The boy noted that that place stunk.
Words referring to time also change
Examples:
Direct: “I will visit you tomorrow,” he shouted.
Indirect: He shouted that he would visit me the following/next day
Direct : “ He died last year,” the policeman reported.
Indirect: The policeman reported that he had dies the previous year/ the year before.
Demonstrative pronouns also change:
Examples:
Direct: “This book is mine,” Jane claimed.
Indirect: Jane claimed that that book was hers.
Direct: “These are hard times,” observed the president.
Indirect: The president observed that those were hard times.
Pronouns also change when rewriting a sentence from direct to indirect speech.
Examples:
Direct: “My car is better than yours,” the teacher bragged.
Indirect: The teacher bragged that his/her car was better that his/hers/theirs.
Exercise 7
Change the following sentences from Direct to Indirect speech.
QUESTION TAGS
A question tag or a tag question is a phrase that is added at the end of a statement to turn into a question. When a speaker uses a question tag at the end of a statement, he/she is seeking for approval, confirmation or correction.
Examples:
APPROVAL: I look smart today, don’t I? Yes you do.
CORFIRMATION: These are the new students, aren’t they? Yes they are.
CORRECTION: I paid your money yesterday, didn’t I ? No you didn’t
Many learners face a problem of supplying the correct question tags to sentences. This is because they fail to observe the following rules of question tags:
Examples:
Rufftone has released a new album, hasn’t he?
He is pushing for a decision by tomorrow, isn’t he?
Examples:
Neson Mandela was in prison for 27 years, wasn’t he?
The people of South Africa have lost a great hero, haven’t they?
Examples:
Mark Francis wakes up very early, doesn’t he?
Peter Bryan bought an I-pad phone, didn’t he ?
Examples:
Fatou Bensouda is prosecutor in ICC, isn’t she?
She does her work meticulously, doesn’t she?
Examples:
David Rudisha has broken another record, hasn’t he?
Cathrerine Ndereba hasn’t been very active, has she?
Douglas Wakiihuri does not run any more, does he?
Ezekiel Kemboi entertains the audience after winning, doesn’t he?
You will note form the above examples that the auxiliary verb is usually contrated (joined) with the negative indicator not when using question tags.
However, this does not apply when using primary auxiliary verb am and the modal auxiliary verbs will and shall. Am does not allow contraction with not, will and shall usually change their forms to allow contraction.
Examples:
WRONG : am the next speaker, amn’t I?
CORRECT: I am the nest speaker, am I not?
WRONG: They will be late for church, willn’t they?
CORRECT: They will be late for church, won’t they?
WRONG: We shall attend the Memorial service, willn’t we?
CORRECT: we shall attend the memorial service, shan’t we?
Examples:
President Uhuru Kenyatta has won the case, hasn’t he?
Subject verb verb verb subject
He can now relax and attend to his duties, can’t he?
Subject verb verb subject
Examples:
Please help me with your pen, will you?
Let us go for a swim, shall we?
Bring me that chair, will you?
Stop that noise, will you?
Kneel down right away, will you?
Those are the rules that govern question tags and if followed well, the learners will not heve any problems with question tags.
Exercise 8
Supply the appropriate question tags in the following sentences.
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER FOUR
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Exercise 4
Answers to Exercise 5
CHAPTER FIVE
CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION
Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining letters in lower case. The following are the cases when capitalization is used:
(A) Abbreviations
Abbreviations begin with a capital letter.
Examples:
Prof. George Saitoti Mr. Stephen Kiama
Dr. Ephantus Maree Mrs. Teresa Ndegwa
Lt. James Conary Ms. Jacinta Atieno
Note that all the above abbreviations end with a period. Miss is not an abbreviation, so it doesn’t end with a period.
(ii) Words used as addresses
Examples:
St. (street) Blvd. (Boulevard)
Ave. (Avenue Rte. (Route)
Rd. (Road) Apt. (Apartment)
(iii) Words used in businesses
Examples:
Co. (Company) Inc. (Incorporation)
Corp. (Corporation) Ltd. (Limited)
(iv) Some abbreviations are written in all capital letters, with a letter standing for each important word.
Examples:
P.O. (Post Office) USA (United States of America)
P.D. (Police Department) E.A. (East Africa)
(v) Initials of names of persons
Examples:
E.W. Gichimu D.M. Weyama
W.W. Muriithi Everlyne A. Kira
Examples:
The Minister’s Daughter (book) Tahidi High (TV show)
The Daily Nation( newspaper) Harry Potter (movie)
Drum Magazine (magazine) The Day of the Jackal (book)
Capitalize the first and last words only. Do not capitalize little words such as a, an, the, but, as, if, and, or, nor etc.
(C)Titles of shorts stories, songs, articles, book chapters and most poems.
Examples:
Half a Day (short story)
Kigeugeu (song)
Three Days on Mt. Kenya (short story)
The Noun Clauses (chapter in a book)
Grass Will Grow (a poem)
(E) Religious names and terms
Examples:
God Allah Jesus the Bible the Koran
Do not capitalize the words god and goddess when they refer to mythological deities.
(F) Major words in geographical names
Examples:
Continents – Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia
Water bodies – the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Nile River, River Tana, Lake Victoria.
Landforms – the Rocky Mountains, the Aberdares Mountains, the Rift Valley, the Sahara Desert.
Political Units – the Kirinyaga County, the Central Province, Inoi Sub-location.
Public Areas – Nairobi National Park, Wajee Nature Park.
Roads and Highways – Jogoo Road, Kenyatta Avenue, Uganda Road.
(G) Names of organisations and institutions
Examples:
Kianjege West Secondary School, United Nations, University of Nairobi, Nairobi Women’s Hospital
Note that here you capitalize only the important words. Do not capitalize such words such as a, in, and of. Do not capitalize such words as school, college, church and hospital when they are not used as parts of names.
Example:
There will be a beauty contest at school.
(H) Months, days and holidays
Examples:
June Labour Day
Tuesday December
Kenyatta Day Mashujaa Day
Do not capitalize names of seasons: autumn, summer, winter, spring
Examples:
Chinese Kikuyu Christianity Caucasian
Bantu Nigerian Muslim Oriental
(J) The first word of every sentence
Example:
What an exciting day it was!
(K) The pronoun I
Example:
What should I do next?
(L) Proper Nouns
Examples:
Lang’ata Cemetery Ann Pauline Nyaguthii
Kangaita Women’s Group Muhigia Teachers Sacco
(M) Proper Adjectives
Examples:
We ate at an Italian restaurant
She is a German
(N) The first word in greetings and the closing of a letter.
Examples:
Dear Mark, Yours sincerely,
Dear Bryan, Yours faithfully,
My dear Mum, Very truly yours,
(O) Quotations
Examples:
Jamlick exclaimed, “This book would make a great movie!”
“Where,” asked the stranger, “is the post office?”
“It’s late,” Billy said. “Let’s go home!”
(P) First word of each main topic and subtopic in an outline
Examples:
(i) Proper nouns
Exercise 1
Correct all errors of capitalization in the following sentences.
Punctuation is the system of symbols that we use to separate sentences and parts of sentences, and to make their meaning clear. Each symbol is called a punctuation mark. For example (. , ! – : etc)
Punctuation marks can be grouped into:
There are three kinds of end marks: the full stop (.), the question mark (?), and the exclamation mark (!). End marks show where sentences end.
A full stop is used to end a complete sentence. We use a full stop to end:
Example:
The highest skyscraper in Nairobi is Times Tower.
Example:
Please climb the stairs carefully.
Note: An imperative sentence is followed by an exclamation mark when it expresses a strong emotion.
Example:
Be careful!
Example:
The naughty boy wanted to know why there was no mid-term break.
Other uses of the full stop
Full stops are also used:
Examples:
L.L. Coo J. Mr. Sammy Njagi 11:00 A.M.
Sept. Wed. 2hr. 12min
Note that some abbreviations do not require full stops:
Examples:
M (metres) FM (frequency modulation) Km kilometres)
Examples:
Outline List
1.Parts of speech 1. Water – borne diseases
1.Types of nouns 3. Sexually – transmitted diseases
Examples:
$ 25.65 165.42 25.3%
The question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence (a sentence that asks a question).
Examples:
When was the Times Tower built?
Who built it?
(c)The Exclamation mark (!)
The exclamation mark is used at the end of the exclamatory sentence and after an interjection. (An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling, emotion or emphasis. An interjection is a word or group of words that expresses strong feelings).
Examples:
Exclamatory sentence: Oh, what a tall building it is!
Interjections: Superb! Fantastic! Impressive!
An exclamation mark can also be used at the end of an imperative sentence that expresses strong feeling.
Example:
Sit! And stay in that chair if you know what’s good for you!
There are a number of uses of the comma in English. A comma generally tells the reader where to pause. They are used:
The three or four items in a series can be nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, independent clauses, or other parts of sentences.
Examples:
Nouns: John, Jim, Jack walk to school everyday.
Verbs: He located, patched, and sealed the leak in the tyre.
Adverbs: She walked quickly, steadily, and calmly.
Prepositional phrases: He walked through the park, over the bridge, and onto the streets.
Independent clauses: The match was over, the crowd cheered, and Barcelona received the first- place trophy.
Adjectives: The fresh, ripe fruit was placed in a bowl.
Note in the above examples that a comma must be used just before the conjunction.
Some students were taking their lunch, but others were studying.
Marto photographed the accident scene, and he sold the pictures to the newspaper.
Example:
Would she be a lawyer, or would she be a doctor?
Note: A comma is not required in very short compound sentence in which the parts are joined by and. However, always use a comma before the conjunctions but and or.
Examples:
Marto photographed the accident scene and Toni reported it.
Marto photographed the accident scene, but Toni reported it.
Note also: A comma is not required before the conjunction that joins the parts of a compound verb unless there are more than two parts.
Examples:
Mary entered and won the beauty contest.
That camera focuses, flashes, and rewinds automatically.
Special elements add specific information to a sentence, but they are not essential. A comma is used to separate a special element from the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
Word: Cautiously, he entered the building
Phrase: After his failure, he disappeared from the public scene.
Clause: Because he had practised daily, he presented his new song perfectly.
Note: If the pause after a short introductory element is very brief, you may omit the comma.
Examples:
At first he was unsure of his singing ability.
Finally it was his turn.
Commas are also used after introductory words such as yes, no, oh and well when they begin a sentence.
Examples:
Well, it’s just too cold out there.
No, it isn’t seven yet.
Oh, you have spilled the milk.
Interrupters are words that break, or interrupt the flow of thought in a sentence. The commas are used before and after the interrupter to indicate pauses.
Examples:
I didn’t expect, however, to lose the job.
So many people, assumed, sing as well as he does.
He was chosen, nevertheless, as the new band leader.
Examples:
Yes, Kamau, you can borrow my book.
Serah, do you know where I kept my phone?
How is your leg, grandpa?
Examples:
Jackson said, “After my injury I had to learn to walk again.”
“The therapists urged me to keep trying,” he continued.
If the speech tag interrupts the spoken words commas are used after the last word of the first part of the spoken words and after the last word in the speech tag.
Example:
“After a while,” he added, “I was walking without a cane”.
Note: When a sentence is indirect or reported, no commas are used.
Example:
He added that after a while he was walking without a cane.
Place a comma after the day of the month.
Examples:
July 3, 1965 December 12, 2010
Place a comma between the name of the town or city and the name of the state, district, or country.
Examples:
Kibingoti, Kirinyaga County Mombasa, Kenya
Examples:
Dear Rose, Yours sincerely,
The semicolon is used:
Example:
Mountain climbing is exciting; it can also be dangerous.
Note that the semicolon replaces the comma and the coordinating conjunction.
Conjunctions that are commonly replaced by semicolons are and, but, or, for, and nor.
Example:
The competition takes place in July; however, I prefer August.
Example:
Last year I flew to Johannesburg, South Africa; Cairo, Egypt; and Kingston, Jamaica.
The colon is used:
Example:
My school bag contains the following items: exercise books, text books, pencils, pens, a geometrical set, and a packet of crayons.
Example:
Dear Mr. Mututho:
Examples:
9:00 A.M. 6:00 P.M. Exodus 2:1-3
The hyphen is used:
Note that only words with two or more syllables may be divided at the end of a line and words should be divided only between syllables.
Example:
When walking along the streets of Naivasha Town, he met his friend, Waina–
ina.
Never divide a word of one syllable and do not divide words to leave a single letter at the end or beginning of a line.
Incorrect: a–ttraction
Correct: attra–ction.
Examples:
Samuel Wanjiru was a world–famous athlete.
She is my sister–in–law.
Examples:
seventy–three relatives one–quarter full
The apostrophe is used:
Add an apostrophe and an s.
Examples:
the baby’s cot James’s car Joseph’s radio
Add an apostrophe and an s.
Examples:
children’s men’s women’s
Examples:
tricksters’ tenants’
Use an apostrophe and an s.
Examples:
everybody’s somebody’s nobody’s
Note: Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun like our, yours, hers, theirs.
Show possession in the last word only
Example:
the United Nations’ brochure
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
My mother-in-law’s photograph album
Show possession in the last word only.
Example:
Peter and Patrick’s Limousine
In contractions, apostrophes replace omitted letters.
Examples:
she’s = she is aren’t = are not I’m = I am
it’s = It is isn’t = is not we’ll = we will
can’t = cannot won’t = will not they’ve = they have
Examples:
The tribal clashes of ’08 (the tribal clashes of 2008)
The’82 coup attempt (the 1982 coup attempt)
The quotation marks are used:
Example:
Direct speech: The presidential candidate promised, “Creating new jobs for the youths will be my first priority.”
Indirect speech: The presidential candidate promised that creating new jobs would be his first priority.
Note:
Example:
The minister said, “You must conserve our environment.”
Example:
“Bring me the money,” said the moneylender, “before the end of the day.”
If the second part of the quotation is a complete sentence, the first word of this sentence is capitalized.
Example:
“I am scared,” said the borrower. “That moneylender is a brute.”
(iii) Place commas and fullstops inside quotation marks
Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.
Examples:
“Last month,” the borrower explained, “I borrowed some money from the moneylender.”
Carol said to the borrower, “And you refused to repay back on time”; however, the borrower did not agree.
These candidates were suggested in the article “Our Country’s Future”: Raila Odinga, Uhuru Kenyatta, William Ruto, and Martha Karua.
Examples:
Carol asked, “How much money did you borrow?”
Did the borrower say, “I can’t remember”?
“You are a fool!” exclaimed Carol.
(v) Use single quotation marks to enclose a title or quotation within a quotation.
Example:
“Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember’ before she lost her temper.”
If the tile or quotation within the quotation ends the sentence, use both the single and the double quotation marks after the last word of a sentence.
Example:
“Carol heard the borrower say, ‘I can’t remember.’”
Exercise 1
Punctuate each of the following sentences appropriately.
ANSWERS TO CHAPTER FIVE
Exercise 1
Exercise 2
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